•NRLF 


B    3    3bl    EMI 


.*«?»* 


LIBRARY 


LIFE  ON  THE  SEASHORE, 


LIFE  ON  THE  SE 


OR 


ANIMALS  OF  OUR  COASTS  AND  BAYS, 


"With    illustrations    and    descriptions. 


BY 


JAMES  H.  EMERTON, 


Author   of   Structure  and    Habits   of  Spiders. 


NATURALISTS'  HANDY  SERIES 


NO.     1. 


S.   E.  GASSING  &  CO., 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


COPYRIGHT 

BY 

OEORGE   A.    BATES, 
1880. 


PRINTED  AT  THE  SALEM  PRESS, 

cor.  Liberty  and  Derby  Sts., 

SALEM,  MASS. 


PREFACE 


345708 


PKEFACE. 


IN  this  book  I  have  tried  to  give  such  explanations  of 
some  of  the  common  animals  of  the  New  England  coast 
as  have  often  been  asked  for  at  the  shore  and  in  museums 
by  persons  little  acquainted  with  zoology,  and  to  give  such 
directions  about  collecting  and  observing  them  as  have 
been  found  useful  to  students,  who  come  to  the  shore 
for  a  short  time  in  the  summer  to  study  animals  that  they 
before  knew  only  from  pictures.  For  more  complete 
accounts  of  the  same  animals  the  reader  is  referred  to 
larger  works,  such  as  Gould's  Invertebrata  of  Massachu- 
setts, VerrilPs  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Sound,  the 
Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  and  the  special 
papers  on  particular  groups  of  animals  which  are  referred 
to  in  the  general  works  just  named.  The  common  names 
of  animals,  like  squids  and  lobsters,  have  been  used  as 
far  as  practicable,  but  for  the  majority  of  them  the  cus- 


PREFACE. 

ternary  latinized  names,  by  which  they  are  known  among 
naturalists  have  been  given;  and  it  is  believed  they  will 
not  be  found  more  troublesome  than  the  sea-peach,  sea- 
corn,  devil-fish,  conger-eel,  etc.,  which  are  used  so  in- 
discriminately by  fishermen.  Many  of  the  figures  have 
been  drawn  from  nature  for  this  book  and  the  rest  are 
copied  from  those  which  have  appeared  in  the  Reports 
of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  the  Invertebrata  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  other  works;  and  I  would  here  express  my 
thanks  to  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill  for  the  use  of  a  large  part 
of  these  figures  and  for  other  assistance,  and  also  to 
Prof.  S.  I.  Smith,  Mr.  A.  Agassiz  and  the  publishers  of 
Tenney's  Zoology. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS, 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

ANIMALS  BETWEEN  TIDES       

I 

SHORE  ANIMALS          .                  ... 

II 

12-14 

I4-l6 

16,  17 

18,19 

10-22 

X 

23-29 

29,3° 

31,  32 

ANIMALS  NEAR  LOW-WATER  MARK 

33 

Lobsters    

33-36 

Shrimps         . 

37 

Crabs 

38~44 

Snails 

45-49 

Oysters      . 

49-5  1 

Scollops 

S^S2 

Teredo 

5^53 

Worms          

54,55 

Ascidians            ...••• 

56-59 

Starfishes       ,,.•••• 

59-62 

TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Sea-eggs   . 

Sand  dollar 

Holothurians 

Sea-anemones 

Polyps 

Hydroids 

Sponges    . 

Infusoria 

Acinetse 


PAGE 
63^5 

66 

66 

67-70 

70-74 
74,  75 
75-77 
77,  7* 
79 


SURFACE  ANIMALS 81 

Copepods          ...  »      ...  83 

Crustacea 84-86 

Worms 86-88 

Cuttlefishes            .         .         .         .         .         .  89-94 

Pteropods 94, 95 

Snails 95, 96 

Ascidians 96,97 

Young  starfishes  and  sea-eggs         ...  97 

Young  Lophothuria    .....  98 

Jelly-fishes 98-108 

BOTTOM  ANIMALS IO^ 

Dredge-nets                             ....  109-111 

Trawls       .                  112,113 

Tangle                   .*       .         .         .         .         .  113,  u4 

Dredging                             .                  .         .  JI4-I2O 

Clams            .....  121 
Laminaria 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Polyzoa 124 

Chitons     .......       125,  126 

Red  Crab     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  127 

Spirorbis  .         .         .         .         .         .  127 

Sea-anemone         .         .         .         .         .         .  127 

Crustacea  ......  128 

Worms 121,  128-130 

Snails        .         .         .         .         .         ;         .  130 

Holothurians          .         .         .         .         ...  131 

Ascidians  .         .         .         .  .  131 

Shrimps         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  132 

Amphipods  .       132,  1 33 

Snails  .    122,  133,  134 

Brachiopods      .         .         .         .         ...  135 

Polyimstia .  136 

Polyps 136 

Echinoderms         .         .         .         .         .         .  137 

Index 141 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

102.  Acineta 78 

160.  Alcyonium  carneum,  compound  polyp  ......  136 

144.  Amphitrite  ornata 118 

140.  Anguius  tener  .....".....  114 

16.  Anomia,  under  side  of 19 

in.  Architeuthis  princeps,  squid 93 

68.  Ascidian,  young        .         .         .         .               •  .         ...         .         .         .  59 

151.  Ascidians  covered  with  sand  ........  126 

99.  Ascortis  fragilis,  ciliated  cells  of 76 

155.  Astarte  sulcata 130 

78.  Asterias,  starfish - 65 

93.  Astrangia  Danae,  five  polyps  of 74 

118.  Aurelyi  flavidula,  common  jelly-fish 99 

119.  "             "            first  stage  of      ........  99 

106.  Autolytus 87 

1.  Barnacle,  young 12 

ia.                      second  stage  of 12 

2.  "          anatomy  of i3 

137.  Boat  dredging,  diagram  of          .........  113 

132.  Bolina  aleta,  jelly-fish             . 107 

157.  Boltenia  Bolteni,  long-stalked  ascidian      .......  133 

149.  Buccinum  undatum,  whelk 123 

72.  Bugula  turrita,  enlarged  twice 60 

74.         "                    branch  of 62 

43.  Callinectes  hastatus,  blue  crab 42 

40.  Cancer  irroratus,  common  crab      ........  37 

47.  Caprella  geometrica            ...» 46 

113.  Cavolina  tridentata 95 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fir,.  PAGE 

100.  Chalina  oculata,  sponge  77 

28.  Cistenides  Gouldii,  brightly-colored  worm 25 

95.  Clava  leptostyla,  polyp      ....  75 
112.  Clione  papillonacea,  pteropod 94 

27.  Clymenella  torquata,  common  beach  worm 25 

103.  Copepod          .                  83 

159.  Corymorpha  pendula »  35 

96.  Coryne  mirabilis,  jelly-fish,  cluster  of 76 

96.  "                                           enlarged 76 

125.  "               "         with  tentacles  enlarged 104 

39.  Crangon  vulgaris 36 

14.  Crepidula  fornicata,  limpet,  under  side  of  shell     .....  19 

15.  "          plana,  limpet,  shell  of 19 

82.  Cribrella,  young 68 

71.  .Crisia  eburnea             60 

73.  "           "                branch  of          ........  61 

141.  Cyprina  islandica       ...........  115 

58.  Dendronotus  atborescens,  snail 52 

105.  Diastylis  quadrisponosus,  Cumacea           .:.-....  86 

143.  Diopatra  cuprea     ...........  117 

60.  Doris  bifida,  snail -         .         .         .         .  53 

134.  Dredge .         .  no 

87.  Echinarachnius  parma,  sand-dollar 70 

84.  Echinus,  common  sea-egg 69 

87^.  "         young  of 70 

1 8.  Ensatella  Americana,  razor  clam 20 

57.  Eolis  diversa,  snail,  young  of 51 

59.  "      pilata,  snail 53 

46.  Eupagurus  Bernhardus,  hermit  crab         .......  45 

77.  Flustrella  hispida,  young  polyzoa 64 

33.  Gammarus  ornatus,  amphipod 27 

36.  Gelasimus  pugilator,  fiddler  crab 31 

37.  Homarus  Americanus,  lobster 34 

128.  Hybocodon  prolifer,  jelly-fish 105 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG-  PAGE 

146.    Hydractinia   polyclina,  female  cluster I2o 

146.                                               male        " I2l 

34.  Idotoea  irrorata,  isopod      ..........  29 

133.   Idyia  roseola,  jelly-fish            .........  107 

55.  Ilyanassa  obsoleta,  snail 50 

120.  Jelly-fish,  early  stage  of 100 

rar.           "          young,  ready  to  swim  away      .......  100 

56.  Lacuna  vincta,  brown-shelled  snail         .......  50 

3.    Lapis  fascicularis,  floating  barnacle           .         .         .        .        .         .         .  13 

30.  Lepidonotus  squamatus,  scaly  worm                       >         .         .  26 
32.    Leptoplana  variabilis,  planarian 27 

88.  Leptosynapta  Girardii,  holothurian,  upper  end  of         ....  71 

89.  plates  and  hooks  from  the  skin  of         ...  71 
45.    Libinia  canaliculata,  spider  crab 44 

35.  Limnoria  lignorum,  wood-bearing  isopod           .»-.»-.         .         .  30 
48.    Limulus  polyphemus,  horse-shoe  crab            ......  46 

31.  Linens  viridis,  nemertine 26 

10.    Littorina  litorea,  periwinkle 17 

12.         "        palliat-i •••...  18 

n.                    rudis 18 

38.    Lobsters,  young 35 

108.  Loligo  pallida,  squid 89 

no.                               pen  of 92 

109.  Pealii,  clusters  of  eggs  of 91 

161.   Lophothuria  Fabricii,  echinoderm     ........  137 

117.    Lophothurian,  young 98 

50.    Lunatia  heros,  snail ,  48 

Si-          "           "       crawling 48 

53-          "           "       eggs  of,  on  sand 49 

52.          "           "        teeth  of 49 


23.  Macoma  fusca,  round  clam        .........  23 

21.  Mactra  solidissima,  hen  clam 22 

154.  Margarita  obscura , 130 

42.  Megalops,  young  crab 39 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

69.  Membranipora  pilosa,  polyzoa,  much  enlarged 60 

70.  single  animal  expanded 61 

75-                                          young  polyzoa 63 

76.                                  "         swimming  young,  seen  edgewise        ...  63 

90.   Metridium  marginatum,  common  sea-anemone 72 

6.   Modiola  modiolus,  mussel 16 

5.                   plicatula,  mussel 15 

67.    Molgula  manhattensis,  simple  ascidian 59 

17.    Mya  arenaria,  common  clam     .........  20 

104.    Mysis  stenolepis     ...........  85 

4.    Mytilus  edulis,  common  mussel 14 

24.  Nereis  virens,  common  bait  worm,  head  and  front  segments  of     .  23 
26.        "          "         head  of 24 

25.  section  of 24 

129.    Nanomia  cara,  compound  jelly-fish 105 

123.  Obelia,  jelly-fish 102 

124.  commissuralis,  branching  hydroid         .         .       '  •         .         .         .  103 

83.   Ophiopholis  aculeata,  starfish ,  68 

61.   Oyster,  young  of 54 

62'        "           "             55 

63.                      "       seen  edgewise     .........  56 

64-                       "              56 


152.  Pandalus  annulicornis 127 

42.  Panopaeus  depressus,  mud  crab 41 

122.  Peachia  parasitica,  sea-anemone        ........  101 

65.  Pecten  irradians,  scollop 57 

150.  Pentacta  frondosa,  holothurian 125 

148.  Phascolosoma  cementarium,  enlarged 122 

130.  Physalia  arethusia,  compound  jelly-fish 106 

44.  Platyonichus  ocellatus,  lady  crab .  43 

131.  Pleurobrachia  rhododactyla,  jelly-fish 107 

29.  Polycirrus  eximius,  mud  worm,  tentacles  extended       ....  25 

7.  Purpura  lapillus,  snail j6 

egg  cases  of, 17 

49.  Pycnogonidae 47 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

92.  Sagartia  leucolena,  white-armed  sea  anemone        .....  73 

116.  Salpa  Cabotti,  ascidian               .                 gj 

115.       "             "       with  chain  of  young  within             96 

19.  Saxicava  arctica,  clam 21 

91.  Sea  anemone,  section  of          .........  73 

85.  Sea-egg,  pedicellaria  of 69 

86.  "         porous  plate  of 69 

97.  Sertularia  pumila 76 

138.  Sieve,  for  separating  contents  of  dredge         .         .         .         .         .         .  113 

22.  Siliqua  costata            22 

114.  Snail,  veliger  of  ...........  96 

81.  Starfish,  development  of  67 

79-  sP'ne  of 69 

81.  "  young 66 

156.  Sternaspis  fossor,  worm           .........  132 

136.  Tangle 112 

13.  Tectura  testudinalis,  limpet,  shell  of 18 

158.  Terebratulina  septentrionalis .         .        .  134 

66.  Teredo  navalis,  ship  worm 58 

94.  Thammocnidia  spectabilis 75 

126.  Tiaropsis  diademata       .        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .        .  104 

127.  Tima  formosa 104 

145.  Trachydermon  ruber      ..........  120 

135.  Trawl in 

54.  Tritia  trivittala,  snail              50 

142.  Trophonia  afiinis,  front  segments  of 116 

153.  Unciola  irrorata 129 

9.  Urosalpinx  cinerea,  snail 17 

20.  Venus  mercenaria,  quahaug 21 

101.  Vorticella,  from  hydroid  stems 78 

107.  Worm,  young          ..>......*• 

139.  Yoldia  limatula          ...........  114 

41 .  Zoea,  young  crab            ..........  3^ 


ANIMALS  BETWEEN  TIDES, 


ANIMALS 


BETWEEN    TIDES 


ONE  of  the  most  interesting  things  about  the  seashore  to 
the  visitor  from  inland  parts  of  the  country  is  the  difference 
between  its  plants  and  animals,  and  those  with  which  he  is 
familiar  on  the  land  or  in  fresh-water  ponds  and  rivers.  The 
flowering  plants,  which  cover  with  shrubs  and  weeds  every 
part  of  the  dry  land  where  they  can  get  a  foothold,  are  rep- 
resented in  the  salt  water  by  only  one  species,  the  eelgrass, 
which  grows  in  immense  quantities  on  sand  or  mud  just 
below  low  water,  and  when  the  tide  is  out  settles  down  into 
a  thick  mat  through  which  a  boat  can  hardly  be  pushed.  In 
the  summer  the  simple  green  flowers  in  a  groove  on  the  leaf- 
like  stem  float  out  on  the  surface  at  low  tide,  but  are  covered 
again  when  the  water  rises.  Most  of  the  marine  plants  be- 
long to  another  class,  the  "algae,"  some  of  which  also  grow 
in  fresh  water.  To  the  algse  belong  the  brown  "rockweed" 
and  "Irish  moss"  that  grow  in  slippery  bunches  over  the 
i  (0 


E   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


stones  for  some  distance  above  low  water,  where  they  are 
left  uncovered  and  partly  dry  for  half  the  time,  and  the  more 
delicate  red  and  green  seaweeds  that  live  in  deeper  water. 

Between  land  and  marine  animals  the  difference  is  quite 
as  great.  On  land  no  animals  are  more  common  and  of  a 
greater  number  of  kinds  than  the  insects,  while  in  the  sea  only 
about  a  dozen  species  live  in  their  young  condition  near  the 
shore.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Crustacea,  to  which  the  lob- 
ster and  crabs  belong,  are  almost  entirely  marine,  only  the 
sow  bugs,  the  crayfish  and  a  few  crabs  living  on  land.  Al- 
most all  the  worms,  too,  live  in  the  sea,  the  leeches  and  awk- 
ward earthworms  giving  no  idea  of  the  variety  and  beauty  of 
this  class  of  animals.  Of  the  polypes  and  jelly  fishes  only 
the  little  hydra  lives  in  fresh  water,  and  none  on  land.  The 
echinoderms,  to  which  the  starfishes  and  sea  eggs  belong,  are 
all  marine.  Tlie  great  number  and  variety  of  marine  mol- 
lusks,  compared  with  those  of  the  land  and  fresh  water,  are 
well  known  by  their  shells,  which  form  a  large  part  of  every 
natural  history  collection. 

The  readfest  places  to  look  for  marine  animals  are  along 
beaches  near  high  water  mark,  among  the  sand  and  rubbish 
thrown  up  by  the  waves,  but  a  large  part  of  the  objects 
found  here  are  liable  to  be  broken  or  worn  by  the  water  and 
to  have  the  softer  parts  decayed.  Just  aft?r  a  storm,  how- 
ever, a  great  deal  may  be  found  here,  for  animals  which  live 
usually  below  low  tide  are  often  loosened  and  thrown  up 
fresh  on  the  shore.  Other  objects  of  interest  may  be  found 
among  the  roots  of  seaweeds  which  are  often  thrown  up  at 
such  times  in  large  quantities.  If,  however,  one  wants  to 
see  the  animals  of  the  shore  to  advantage,  he  must  look 


ANIMALS    BETWEEN  TIDES.  3 

farther  down  the  beach  where  they  are  alive  and  in  their 
natural  condition.  Everything  here  depends  on  the  tides, 
for  unless  "this  is  low  very  little  can  be  reached.  The  almanac 
should  be  consulted  beforehand,  and,  if  possible,  a  time  se- 
lected about  the  new  or  full  moon,  when  the  tides  rise  high- 
est and  also  run  out  lowest.  For  collecting  along  the  shore 
but  little  apparatus  is  needed ;  a  few  bottles  with  wide 
mouths  in  a  basket  or  pail  in  which  they  will  stand  up,  a 
trowel  or  strong  knife  for  digging  and  prying,  and  a  pair  of 
small  forceps,  such  as  are  made  for  dentists  and  jewellers, 
are  the  most  useful  things  on  a  rocky  shore  or  about  Wharves 
and  bridges.  Where  there  are  pools  of  water  left  by  the 
tide  or  wherever  collecting  can  be  done  from  a  boat  a  dip 
net  is  wanted,  and  on  sandy  or  muddy  shores,  a  spade  and 
sieve.  A  fish  net  is  not  fine  enough  for  a  naturalist's  use, 
but  one  made  of  some  kind  of  open  cloth  must  be  carried. 
The  linen  cloth  sold  for  milk  strainers,  embroidery  canvas,  or 
thin  towel  linen,  are  good  materials  for  the  purpose.  The 
net  hoop  should  be  of  brass,  as  iron,  even  if  tinned  or  cov- 
ered with  zinc,  sooner  or  later  becomes  rusty  and  spoils  the 
net.  It  is  best  to  have  the  bottom  of  the  net  round  so  that 
there  shall  be  no  corners  to  catch  dirt.  Some  collectors 
have  long  handles  to  their  nets,  so  as  to  be  able  to  reach 
objects  at  a  distance  or  in  deeper  water,  but  for  most  pur- 
poses a  stick  three  or  feet  long  is  sufficient,  and  can  be 
carried  and  handled  much  more  easily  than  a  longer  one. 

In  whatever  place  one  goes  about  the  salt  water  he  is  sure 
to  get  dirty,  and  should  not  wear  anything  that  is  intended 
to  be  worn  in  town  afterward.  Salt  water  spoils  thin  shoes, 


4  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

and  if  the  water  is  too  cold  or  the  shore  too  rough  for  bare 
feet,  rubber  boots  or  still  better  stout  leather  ones  are  com- 
fortable. The  best  places  to  find  a  large  variety  of  marine 
animals  in  a  short  time  are  rocky  shores,  or  the  posts  of 
wharves  and  bridges  where  these  are  in  deep  and  tolerably 
clear  water.  In  such  places  one  can  work  from  a  small 
boat  tied  to  the  posts  or  held  by  a  boat  hook,  and  have  his 
pails  and  bottles  within  convenient  reach  ^without  the  trouble 
of  carrying  them  about  with  him.  If  two  persons  can  go 
together  and  one  manage  the  boat  while  the  other  hunts,  so 
much  the  better,  but  do  not  try  collecting  with  a  boat  full  of 
people  if  you  can  help  it.  After  picking  up  enough  of  the 
starfishes,  barnacles  and  other  things  that  are  in  plain  sight, 
gather  a  few  bunches  of  mussels  and  hydroids  to  look  over 
at  leisure  and  pick  out  the  smaller  animals  among  them  ;  but 
do  not  take  more  than  a  handful  or  two,  or  delay  examining 
them,  for  most  of  the  animals  will  die  in  a  few  hours  if  left 
crowded  together  in  a  bucket,  and  so  foul  the  water  as  to 
kill  the  whole  of  them.  Of  the  larger  specimens  only  as 
many  should  be  taken  as  can  be  provided  with  clear  water 
and  swimming  room  in  the  bottles  at  hand,  and  if  the  weather 
is  warm  or  the  excursion  extends  over  several  hours,  the 
water  should  be  frequently  changed. 

On  a  rocky  shore,  the  best  place  to  look  is  under  stones, 
the  farther  down  the  beach  the  better,  and  here  again  it  is 
an  advantage  for  two  persons  to  work  together  and  so  be 
able  to  manage  larger  stones.  A  small  iron  bar  is  a  help  in 
many  cases  to  start  up  stones  that  have  settled  tightly  to- 
gether so  that  they  can  be  turned  over.  A  little  practice 


ANIMALS    BETWEEN  TIDES.  5 

will  show  which  stones  are  most  likely  to  have  something 
under  them  and  they  are  usually  those  of  moderate  size  and 
not  too  deeply  settled  into  the  sand. 

If  the  shore  is  flat  and  smooth,  many  things  can  be 
found  by  wading  just  below  low  water  and  picking  up  with  a 
dip  net  the  crabs,  mollusks,  etc.,  that  have  been  driven  down 
by  the  receding  tide.  Where  there  are  not  too  many  rocks 
or  patches  of  grass,  a  great  many  little  fishes  and  shrimps 
can  be  caught  by  a  fine  seine  which  two  persons  carry  out  as 
far  as  they  can  wade  and  then  draw  as  rapidly  as  possible 
up  the  beach.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of 
sandy  and  muddy  shores  live  under  ground  and  can  best  be 
found  by  digging.  Some  species  show  where  they  are  buried 
by  a  hole  at  the  surface,  or  by  a  pile  of  sand  coiled  up  like 
that  near  the  hole  of  an  earth  worm,  and  others  build  tubes 
which  extend  a  short  distance  above  the  sand.  These  tubes 
or  holes  extend  far  down  into  the  sand,  and  the  occupants 
are  most  of  them  ready  to  retreat  downward  at  tli2  least 
alarm ;  so  that  they  must  be  dug  quickly  by  one  stroke  of  a 
long  spade  so  as  to  cut  off  their  retreat  or  their  tails  before 
they  know  what  the  matter  is.  A  large  part  of  the  under- 
ground worms,  however,  show  no  signs  of  their  presence  on 
the  surface  and  the  sand  must  be  dug  up  here  and  there 
until  a  good  place  is  found.  The  larger  clams  and  worms 
can  be  picked  out  easily  enough,  but  there  are  many  smaller 
ones  so  covered  with  dirt  that  they  are  likely  to  be  missed ; 
and  to  find  these  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  the  mud  into  a 
sieve  and  shake  it  up  and  down  in  the  nearest  water,  until 
the  greater  part  of  it  is  washed  through,  leaving  a  small 
amount  of  gravel,  shells  and  worm  tubes  that  can  be  easily 


6  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

picked  over.  A  sieve  will  also  be  found  useful  for  examining 
the  mud  and  sand  dredged  in  deeper  water  as  described 
further  on. 

After  bringing  in  the  spoils  of  a  collecting  excursion,  they 
need  first  of  all  to  be  sorted  and  put  into  larger  vessels 
with  clear  water  in  which  they  will  perhaps  expand  and  show 
themselves.  Dead  or  sick  specimens  should  be  removed 
and  thrown  away  or  put  in  alcohol  for  future  study.  Sea- 
weeds and  hydroids  which  have  been  brought  ashore  should 
then  be  floated  out  in  pans  of  water  and  carefully  searched 
for  worms  and  mollusks  that  may  live  among  them ;  and 
after  looking  them  over  once  they  should  be  left  standing  a 
few  hours  when  other  specimens  will  probably  come  into 
view.  The  next  morning  when  the  water  has  begun  to  foul, 
still  other  animals  will  be  found  loose  about  the  dishes  having 
found  their  tubes  and  holes  uncomfortable  during  the  night. 
The  animals  which  are  to  be  kept  alive  several  days  for 
observation  should  be  put  in  a  shady  and  cool  place  and  the 
water  changed  often  enough  to  keep  it  cool  and  clean  ;  and 
when  the  change  is  made  the  slime  should  be  washed  off  the 
dishes  and  any  other  dirt  picked  out.  It  is  best  not  to  try 
to  feed  them,  it  makes  the  water  impure  and  they  get  along 
well  enough  without  it,  living  on  what  they  ate  before  being 
caught  or  may  pick  up  in  the  water  around  them.  A  large 
aquarium  can  be  kept  in  operation  all  the  year  without 
changing  the  water  if  a  sufficient  number  of  plants  can  be 
made  to  grow  in  it  and  the  animals  be  not  too  numerous. 
For  this  purpose  the  green  seaweeds  are  best  and  should  be 
put  in  the  tank  long  before  it  is  to  be  used  for  animals. 
Small  bright  looking  plants  attached  to  stones  are  the  best, 


ANIMALS   BETWEEN   TIDES.  7 

and  the  new  growth  that  attaches  itself  to  the  sides  of  the 
aquarium  should  be  allowed  to  grow  as  far  as  it  can  without 
concealing  its  contents.  As  the  plants  become  established, 
the  dirt  in  the  water  decays  rapidly  and  it  becomes  clearer 
and  clearer,  and  then  such  animals  as  are  found  to  be  hardy 
may  be  put  in,  a  few  at  a  time.  The  aquarium  should  be  in 
a  cool  place  and  be  kept  carefully  clean,  dead  plants  or 
animals  and  dirt  of  every  kind  being  removed  as  soon  as 
noticed.  An  aquarium  can  be  kept  in  healthy  condition  for . 
a  long  time  without  the  use  of  plants,  if  the  water  is  aerated 
by  stirring  or  pouring  out  and  in  again  several  times  a  day. 
As  soon  as  a  tide's  collecting  is  looked  over  the  need  of 
a  magnifying  glass  will  be  felt.  One  magnifying  five  or  six 
times  can  be  bought  at  any  instrument  dealer's,  and  will  be 
very  useful  and  all  that  is  needed  if  one  has  little  time  to 
spare ;  but  a  good  microscope  with  compound  glasses  and 
stage  and  other  conveniences  will  open  to  view  a  set  of 
small  objects  that  without  it  have  to  be  passed  by  altogether. 
For  use  at  the  seashore  a  small  and  simple  microscope  is  the 
best.  A  short  one  that  can  be  used  upright  without  strain- 
ing the  neck  or  using  a  high  stool  is  more  convenient  than 
a  long  instrument  even  if  the  latter  has  some  optical  advan- 
tages. If  an  expensive  instrument  can  be  had  let  the 
money  be  put  into  the  glasses  rather  than  complicated  stands 
and  stage  arrangements.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  microscope  clean,  salt  water  should  be  wiped  up  as  soon 
as  spilled  and  when  rust  shows  itself,  as  it  surely  will  in  the 
damp  atmosphere  of  the  seaside,  it  should  be  rubbed  off 
with  oil  without  the  use  of  polishing  powder  of  any  kind  as 
that  would  remove  the  lacker  and  make  matters  worse. 


8  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

Knives  and  forceps  and  all  kinds  of  metal  tools  should  be 
washed  in  fresh  water  and  dried  as  often  as  possible,  and 
occasionally  oiled  and  nibbed  with  emery  or  some  softer 
powder  if  it  will  answer  the .  purpose.  The  glasses  of  the 
microscope  ought  never  to  be  touched  with  the  fingers,  or 
dirty  cloth  or  paper.  If  they  need  wiping,  as  they  occasion- 
ally will,  do  it  with  a  clean  handkerchief  or  a  piece  of 
washleather  that  is  kept  shut  up  out  of  the  dust.  When 
examining  objects  under  the  microscope  use  the  lowest 
magnifying  power  that  will  show  what  is  wanted.  Living 
animals  can  be  examined  in  watch  glasses,  which  are  the 
most  convenient  small  dishes  for  many  purposes.  They  are, 
however,  unsteady  on  account  of  their  rounded  shape ;  and, 
unless  the  microscope  has  a  movable  stage,  should  always  be 
placed  on  a  strip  of  glass  on  which  they  can  be  slid  about 
on  the  stage  with  less  danger  of  spilling  their  contents.  In 
examining  animals  in  a  watch  glass  or  any  open  vessel 
another  difficulty  arises,  owing  to  their  constant  motion,  and 
it  is  usually  better,  and  with  high  magnifying  powers  neces- 
sary, to  put  them  between  two  pieces  of  glass  with  enough 
water  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  glasses  around  them 
and  make  the  whole  appear  clear.  For  this  purpose  a  strip 
of  thin  plate  or  ordinary  window  glass  of  the  customary  size 
of  one  inch  by  three  may  be  used  with  a  smaller  piece  of 
very  thin  glass,  such  as  is  made  specially  for  this  use,  laid 
over  it.  The  glasses,  especially  the  thin  cover,  should  be 
wiped  clean  and  not  touched  with  the  fingers  except  at  the 
edges.  The  object  should  be  placed  as  near  the  middle  of 
the  larger  glass  as  possible,  with  a  drop  of  water  and  the 
thin  glass  laid  over  it.  If  the  object  is  thick  or  so  soft  as 


ANIMALS    BETWEEN   TIDES.  9 

to  be  in  danger  of  being  crushed  by  the  weight  of  the 
covering-glass,  the  cover  may  be  propped  up  by  bits  of 
paper  or  wax  so  as  to  be  level  and  just  touch  the  object 
lightly.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  water  gets  on  the  top 
of  the  cover,  and  if  it  does  the  cover  should  be  taken  off 
and  wiped  or  the  water  removed  by  soaking  it  up  with  a 
brush  or  a  piece  of  paper  or  cloth. 

The  best  way  to  pick  up  small  floating  animals  is  by  a 
glass  tube  which  is  kept  closed  by  the  finger  on  the  upper 
end  until  the  lower  end  is  close  to  the  object,  when  the 
finger  is  removed  and  a  sudden  current  of  water  runs  up  the 
tube  carrying  the  specimen  with  it.  For  still  smaller  things 
and  for  taking  up  small  quantities  of  water  or  other  liquids, 
a  common  medicine  dropper  with  a  rubber  bulb  on  one 
end  is  better. 

For  preserving  small  animals  the  most  useful  fluid  is 
alcohol,  such  as  is  bought  for  burning  and  cleaning  pur- 
poses. It  is  better  for  most  objects  to  be  put  first  into  weak 
alcohol  and  after  a  day  or  two  into  stronger,  as  by  this 
means  they  contract  more  gradually  and  evenly  than  if  put 
into  strong  alcohol  at  once.  It  is  often  necessary  to  change 
the  alcohol  again  after  a  few  days,  as  the  water  which  the 
specimen  contains  gradually  dilutes  the  alcohol  until  it  is  too 
weak  to  prevent  decay.  Starfishes  or  crabs  that  are  to  be 
dried  do  better  if  kept  a  short  time  in  alcohol  beforehand  so 
that  the  muscles  may  become  hardened  and  dry  without 
decaying. 


SHORE  ANIMALS, 


SHORE   ANIMALS. 

THE  strip  of  shore  left  uncovered  twice  a  day  by  the 
changes  of  the  tide  is  the  home  of  a  large  number  of 
animals  some  of  which  prefer  to  be  thus  exposed  to  the  air 
part  of  the  time. 

Almost  up  to  the  limits  of  high  water  live  the  barnacles 
with  white  conical  shells  attached  firmly  to  the  stones  and 
posts.  Although  they  have  shells  the  barnacles  do  not 
belong  with  the  snails,  but  with  the  crabs,  and  in  their  young 
days  swim  about  free  in  the  water  as  many  other  young  crabs 
do.  Fig.  i  is  a  young  barnacle  such  as  may  be  caught  in 
the  spring  swimming  about  at  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It 
has  a  three  cornered  shell,  a  single  eye  and  three  pairs  of 
limbs.  As  they  get  older  their  shape  changes  to  that  of  Fig. 
i  a  and  they  become  flattened  side  wise  and  have  a  bivalve 
shell.  They  now  have  six  pairs  of  swimming  feet  which 
extend  beyond  the  edges  of  the  shell  and  enable  the  young 
barnacle  to  swim  rapidly  through  the  water;  at  this  stage 

ii 


12  LIFE    ON   THE    SEASHORE. 


the  antennae  become  much  larger  and  the  animal  uses  them 
to  hold  itself  to  any  stationary  object  upon  which  it  may 
rest.  This  habit  at  length  leads  the  barnacle  to  settle  down 


Fig.  i.— Young  Barnacle  enlarged  fifty  times. 

for  life,  for  the  antennae  become  attached  to  the  object  to 
which  they  hold  and  the  animal  finds  itself  fastened  down 

by    the    head,    Fig.    2. 
From  the  antennae  grows 
the   flat   base  by  which 
the  barnacle  is  attached, 
or    in    some    species    a 
long  stem  as  in  the  float- 
Fig.   ia.— Young  Barnacle  in  the  second  stage  ^n&      bamacle,      Fig.      3. 
ready  to  attach  itself,  enlarged  twenty  times. 

[From  Darwin.]  For  some  time  after  at- 

tachment the  shape  of  the  young  barnacle  remains  to  all 
outside  appearances  the  same,  but  when  it  next  moults  it 


BARNACLES. 


appears  with  a  shell  of  a  very  different  kind.     It  has  two 

valves  as  before  which  now  open  upward,  but  below  and 

around  these   are    six 

smaller     pieces     that 

spread    out     to     the 

stone  on  which   it   is 

fastened.       They   are 

at   first   soft   like    the 

old  bivalve  shell   but 

soon    become    stiffer 

through    deposits    of 

lime.     As  the  animal 

PTOWS,     the     Shell     in-    Fig.  2.— Barnacle  with  the  shell  of  one  side  removed 

to  show  the  softer  parts.      Above  are  the  fringed 

rrft-Tcuc.    in    CWA  Kir  i(\  appendages  below  which  in  the  middle  of  the  ani- 

creases  in  size  by  ad-      m^  is  t£e  mouth    Under  the  middle  of  the  base 

3 .  .  , ,  j  of  the  barnacle  are  the  remains  of  the  antennae  by 

dltlOnS    tO     the     edges         which  it  attached  itself.     [From  Darwin.] 

of  each  piece ;  but  the  pieces  around  the  sides  grow  faster 
than   the   movable  valves   and   increase   the  height  of  the 

barnacle  faster  than  its  width. 
The  skin  of  the  softer  parts  of 
the  body  is  moulted  from  time 
to  time  and  these  floating  skins 
are  among  the  most  common 
objects  found  at  the  surface 
and  are  easily  mistaken  for 
jelly-fishes. 

After  the  barnacle  is  fastened 
down  by  the  head  the  appen- 
dages with  which   it   used  to 
Fig.  3.  swim  become  useful  to  keep 

up  a  current  of  water   through   the  shell  and  wash  in  the 
smaller  animals  on  which  the  barnacle  lives.     Each  appen- 


14  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE 

dage  is  divided  into  two  branches  covered  with  fine  hairs 
and  they  form  all  together  a  fan-shaped  organ,  which  is 
thrust  out  of  the  shell  to  its  full  extent  and  then  closed 
downward  with  a  grasping  motion  toward  the  body.  It  is 
then  moved  back  between  the  valves,  thrust  out  again,  and 
the  motion  repeated  for  hours  together. 

While  the  tide  is  out  the  barnacles  close  their  shells  and 
in  this  position  can  live  through  several  hours  of  the  hottest 
weather  without  becoming  dried  •  but  as  soon  as  the  water 
rises  high  enough  to  cover  them,  they  one  by  one  put  out 
their  scoops  until  the  whole  surface  of  the  rock  or  post 

seems  to  be  in  motion. 
If  some  of  them  can 
be  detached  without 
breaking  and  put  in  a 
dish  of  water  they  will 
soon  put  out  their 

Fig.   4--The    Common    Mussel,  Mytilus    cdulis,     SCOOpS  and  gO  through 
with  the  shell  closed.  .  .  , 

their  graceful  motions 
as  well  as  on  their  native  grounds. 

Almost  as  far  up  as  the  barnacles  and  down  much  lower, 
the  posts  of  wharves  and  bridges  are  often  black  with  mussels, 
Fig.  4,  of  all  sizes,  hanging  together  in  clusters  and  furnish- 
ing hiding  places  for  a  great  variety  of  worms  and  mollusks. 
If  a  mussel  be  detached  and  put  in  a  glass  of  water  it  soon 
shows  how  it  fastens  itself  down.  It  reaches  out  from  the 
shell  a  soft  organ  called  the  "foot"  with  which  it  creeps 
slowly  about,  but  as  soon  as  it  gets  into  a  comfortable  place 
it  presses  the  end  of  the  foot  against  the  dish  and  secretes 
in  a  groove  on  one  side  of  it  a  tough  thread,  with  one  end 
fastened  to  the  dish  and  the  other  to  the  body  of  the  mus- 


MUSSELS.  15 

sel  inside  the  shell.  When  the  foot  is  withdrawn  the  thread 
remains  and  holds  the  mussel  fast.  Thread  after  thread  is 
formed  in  this  way  until  the  mussel  is  fastened  firmly  enough 
to  stand  the  hardest  storms.  When  first  hatched  they  swim 
about  by  means  of  cilia  and  later  crawl  by  means  of  the 
foot,  and  even  after  they  are  firmly  anchored  are  said  to  be 
able  to  let  go  and  crawl  about  till  they  find  a  more  suitable 
place.  While  the  tide  is  out  the  mussels  close  their  shells 
tightly  and  so  keep  themselves  moist  till  it  rises  again,  when 
they  open  a  little  and  allow  the  water  to  pass  in  and  out 


Fig.  5. — Modiola  plicatula. 

through  two  fringed  openings  passing  over  the  gills  and 
carrying  the  food  to  the  mouth.  They  open  readily  in 
confinement  and  the  water  may  be  seen  passing  in  and  out. 
The  mussel  does  not  live  exclusively  between  tides,  but 
grows  larger  farther  down  and  often  completely  covers  sand 
bars  and  shallow  coves  where  there  are  stones  enough  for  it  to 
attach  itself.  It  is  also  found  attached  to  the  roots  of  large 
seaweeds  and  specimens  of  a  large  size  are  often  dredged  in 
deep  water.  In  this  country  the  mussel  is  seldom  eaten,  per- 
haps on  account  of  the  abundance  of  oysters  and  clams 
which  are  generally  preferred  as  articles  of  food ;  but  in 


i6 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


Europe  the  same  species  is  extensively  eaten  and  is  even 
cultivated  for  food.  The  American  mussels  are  equally  as 
good  and  if  clams  -and  oysters  should  ever  become  scarce 
would  make  a  good  substitute  for  them. 


Fig.  6. — Modiola  modiolus. 

There  is  another  mussel,  Modiola  plicatula,  Fig.  5,  with  a 
fluted  shell  that  lives  along  muddy  shores  nearly  up  to  high 
water  mark,  and  a  larger  species  Modiola  modiolus,  Fig.  6, 
with  a  reddish   body,  which  lives 
in  deeper  water  and  is  usually  found 
attached  to  the  roots  of  the  "  devil's 
apron"  thrown  up  by  storms. 

Several  species  of  snails   prefer 
to   be   out   of  water   part   of   the 

time    and    if    kept    in    an    aqua- 
Fig.  -j.-Purpura  la  > 

foil  over  on  the  outside  where  they  will  lie  for  several 
days  without  water  apparently  uninjured.  One  of  the  com- 
monest of  these  is  Purpura  lapillus,  a  whitish  shell,  Fig.  7, 
that  lives  among  the  barnacles  on  which  it  feeds  and  there 


SNAILS.  1  7 

lays  its  eggs  in  oval  capsules  half  an  inch  long,  Fig.  8,  fas- 
tened by  one  end  to  the  stones.  The  shells  of  this  snail  are 
very  variable  in  size  and  shape  ;  some  having 
a  long  spire  and  others  a  very  short  one,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  This  is  a  northern 
species  not  found  farther  south  than  Long 
Island  Sound.  A  larger  gray  shell,  Urosalpinx 
cinerea,  Fig.  9,  lives  in  the  same  situations  Fi  g_ 
farther  south,  but  north  of  Cape  Cod  is  only 


i  ,      r  i     .  ,  ,  1-1  case  contans 

occasionally  found  in  warm  bays  or  brackish  several  eggs. 
rivers.  It  lives  on  other  mollusks  and  is  very  destructive 
to  oysters,  drilling  through  the  shell  and  sucking  out  the 
contents.  The  apparatus  by  which  this  boring 
is  effected  is  described  farther  on  in  the 
account  of  a  larger  snail  of  similar  habits,  Lu- 
natia  heros. 

There  are  several  snails  of  the  genus  Littorina 
which  are  very  abundant  between  tides  espe- 
cially on  the  rockweed.  The  largest  species, 

Fig.  9.  —  Urosal- 

pinx dnerea.  Littorina  litorect,  Fig.  10,  has  been  introduced, 
or  at  any  rate  has  spread  southward,  within  comparatively 
few  years.  It  is  common  in  England,  where  it  is  known  as 
the  "  periwinkle"  and  is  eaten  in  large  quan- 
tities. It  was  first  noticed  on  the  American 
coast  at  Halifax  and  has  gradually  spread 
southward  and  increased  in  abundance  as  far 
as  Long  Island  Sound.  It  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  "Invertebrate  of  Vineyard  Sound,"  pub-  Fis-  10.—  P 

kle.  Littorina 


lished  in  1874,  but  has  since  been  found  at 

New  Bedford,   Mass.,  Watch  Hill,   R.   I.,  and   Stonington, 

Conn.     The  smaller  species,  Littorina  rudis  and  palliata, 


i8 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


Figs,  ii  and  12,  are  very  common  on  the  rockweed  and 
their  empty  shells  are  mixed  with  sand  up  to  high  water 
mark,  forming  a  large  proportion  of  the  water-worn  shells 
which  are  gathered  by  patient  summer  visitors  for  the  manu- 
facture of  ghastly  picture  frames  and  other  ornaments.  All 
these  species  are  worth  eating,  either 
raw  or,  better,  slightly  boiled. 

On    stones   well   down   the    shore, 
there   is   often   found  the    "limpet,"  Fig.  n.^Lv/o-   Fig.  I*.—LH- 

rina  rudis.  toriuapal- 

rig.  13,  a  snail  with  a  flat  oval  shell  Uata. 

which  it  can  draw  down  so  close  against  the  stones  that 
it  can  hardly  be  pried  off.  The  best  way  to  see  this  snail 
to  advantage  is  to  keep  it  in  a  glass 
dish,  through  which  the  under  side  can 
be  examined  as  it  expands  and  creeps 
about. 

Another  species,  almost  as  flat  but 
with  a  short  spiral  at  one  end,  is  some- 
times found  near  low  water  attached  to 
stones  or  to  other  shells.  This  is  Cre- 
pidula  fornicata,  Fig.  14.  It  some- 
times remains  so  long  in  one  place  that 

Fig.   13.— Shell  of  Limpet,    tne  e(}ge  Qf  jts  shell  becomes 
J ectnra    tcstiiainalist 

inside  and  profii  irregular  to  fit  the  surface  of 

the  stone  under  it,  but  is  said  to  leave  its  roost 
and  wander  about  for  food  returning  again  to  the 
same  position.  A  still  flatter  species,  Crepidula 
plana,  Fig.  15,  fastens  itself  often  to  other  shells 
and  is  found  inside  those  of  dead  snails  with  its  own  shell 
bent  to  fit  the  curve  under  it. 


LIMPETS. 


There  is  another  small  flat  shell,  often  found  attached  to 
the  under  side  of  stones,  that  is  white  and  shining  as  though 
silvered.  This  is  not  the  shell  of  a  snail 
but  of  a  bivalve,  Anomia,  Fig.  16,  like 
an  oyster  attached  by  a  stem  on  the 
under  side.  The  under  valve  is  very 
thin  and  flat  and  has  near  the  hinge  a 
hole  which  surrounds  the  stem. 

Many  animals  that  live  underground 
prefer   this  region  between  tides.     The  Fig.  14.— ShdTof 

dnla  fornicata,  under 

common  clam  is  found  here,  buried  deep        side. 

in  sand  or  mud  into  which  it  burrows 
by  the  help  of  the  foot,  the  same  organ 
by  which  the  mussel  makes  its  threads. 
The  foot  of  the  clam  is  flat,  and  is 
pressed  down  into  the  mud  and  then  ex- 
panded at 

Fig.  ,7^Sheii  of  the  end  and 

Crepidu  la  plana . 


drawn  down  toward  it.  The 
edges  of  the  openings 
through  which  the  water 
runs  in  and  out  are  in  the 
clam  extended  into  a  long 
double  tube,  commonly 


Called    the    head,   Which    ex-  Fig.  ^.-Anomia,  under  side,  showing  the 

hole  where  the  shell  has  grown  round  the 

tends  up  to  the  surface  of       stem. 

the  sand  and  carries  down  water  and  food.  Fig.  1 7  is  a  dia- 
gram of  the  inside  of  a  clam,  buried  in  the  mud  in  its  natural 
position,  with  the  large  end  of  the  shell  downward  and  the 


20 


LIFE  ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


tubes  extended  upward  above 
the  surface  of  the  mud.  The 
mouth  of  the  clam  is  down- 
ward. The  water  runs  in 
through  the  tube  at  the  right, 
passes  over  the  gills  G,  and 
by  the  mouth  M,  where  the 
food  of  the  clam  is  taken  from 
it,  and  out  again  through  the 
other  tube.  The  razor  clam, 
Fig.  1 8,  lives  buried  in  the 
same  way  in  cleaner  sand.  It 
has  a  very  strong  foot  and  can 
burrow  as  fast  as  a  man  can 
dig.  It  can  be  found  like  the 
common  clam  by  its  hole,  and 
must  be  dug  by  one  quick 
stroke  of  the  spade  or  it  is 
sure  to  be  lost. 

There  is  a  little  clam,  Sax- 
icava,  Fig.  19,  whose  shell 
looks  somewhat  like  that  of 

Fig.  17.  —  Diagram  of  the  anatomy  of  the  . 

common  clam.      The    arrows  show  the    the  Common  Clam,   DUt  it  llVCS 
direction  of  the  currents  of  water  throu- h 

the  tubes,   ^the  foot  contracted ;  G,  under  and  among  stones  and 

gills;  M,  mouth;  P,  palpi  at  the  sides 

of  the  mouth ;  A  N,  PO,  muscles  which    •      Oi_,_        .  Ol,iro,ro    AaCf^-rmoA    Ktr 

close  the  shell.    [After  Morse.]  is  almost  always  deformed  by 

crowding  between  them ;  its  tubes  are  colored  red  and  are 
not  united  at  the  ends. 


Fig.  18.— Razor  Clam.     [After  Verrill.] 


CLAMS. 


21 


The  common  round  clam,  or  quahaug,  Fig.  20,  lives  farther 

down  the  shore  where  it  is  usually  covered  with  water,  and 
is  able  to  move  about  on  the  surface, 
or  partly  buried,  by  its  large  and  strong 
foot.  It  is  most  abundant  in  warm  and 

Fig.  I0.  -Saxicava  arc-  muddy  bays,  where  it  buries  itself 
though  not  so  deeply  as  the  Jlfya,  for  its 

tubes,  through  which  water   passes   in   and  out,  are   much 

shorter.      This 

clam  is  used  ex- 

tensively    for 

food,  and  south 

of  Long  Island 

Sound  becomes 

the    common 

clam    of    the 

markets   replac- 

ing   the   more 

northern     Mya. 

Farther  north  it 

is  comparatively 

rare,  but  occurs 

in   warm   and 

sheltered  places 

as    far   as    the 

Gulf  of  St.  Law- 

rence. 

The    "hen- 

clam  "      MdCtfd 
SoUdissima,   Fig. 

21,  is  a  larger  and  more  active  species,  living  below  low  tide 


-  20-  —  "Quahaug,"  Venus  ntercenaria,  with  the  foot 
and  tubes  extended,  and  the  edges  of  the  mantle  showing 
beyond  the  shell.  [After  Verrill.] 


22 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


along  sandy  beaches  and  often  thrown  up  in  stormy  weather, 
as  it  does  not  burrow  very  deeply,  though  it  has  a  large  and 
strong  foot. 


A  delicate  purple  and  white  shell  Siliqua  costata,  Fig.  22, 

is  often  found  dead  on  sandy 
beaches,  though  its  home  is 
farther  down  below  low  tide. 
On  muddy  shores,  even  in 
Fig.  22.—  Siliqua.  the  dirty  mud  about  docks 

and  wharves  lives  a  little  round  clam,  Macoma  fusca,  Fig. 


WORMS. 


23.     Its  shell  varies  much  in  color  and  texture,  ben  ;  thin 

and  white  where  the  mud  is  sandy  and  clean,  and  rough  and 

almost  black  on  dirty  flats. 

On  sandy  and  muddy  shores  there  live  also,  buried,  many 

species  of  worms.  The  common  bait  worm,  Nereis  virens, 
Fig.  24,  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  ones 
and  is  a  good  example  of  its  class.  The 
body  consists  of  a  great  number  of  seg- 
ments, on  each  of  which  is  a  pair  of 
complicated  appendages,  Fig.  25,  con- 
Fig.  ^.-Macomafusca.  sistins  of  thin  paddles  which  serve  for 

swimming  and  also  as  gills, 

and  of  bunches  of  bristles 

of  various  shapes. 

At   the  head  are  several 

pairs  of  appendages  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  and  two  pairs 

of  eyes.  There  are  also  long 

appendages    on    the    tail. 

These  worms  have  a  pair  of 

strong  jaws  which  are  usually 

drawn  inside  the  mouth,  but 

when    in  use  they  are  pro- 
truded, as   in   Fig.   26,  and 

can  then  give  a  strong  bite. 

These   worms    live    usually 

under  ground  in  holes  which  „. 

r  ig.  24.  —  Head  and  front  segments  of  Ne- 

are  smoothed  and  hardened       rft*  ™re"s- 
by  the  slime  from  their  bodies ;  but  they  come  out  at  times, 
especially  at  night  and   in  the  breeding  season,  and  swim 
about  at  the  surface  of  the  water. 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


Another  very  common  beach  worm,  Clymendla  torquata, 
Fig.  2  7,  makes  a  tube  of  sand  stuck  together  pretty  strongly ; 


Fig.  25.  —  Section  across  one  segment  of  Nereis  -virens,  to  show  the  appendages  at  the 
sides.    It  also  shows  the  blood  vessels  running  through  them.     [From  Turnbull.] 

and,  if  some  ftiud  is  washed  in  a  sieve  till  the  finer  part  is 
washed  through,  great  numbers  of  the  tubes  of  this  and 
other  worms  will  be  found  among 
the  stones  and  shells  that  are  left. 
Among  these  will  often  be  found 
some  very  neatly  made  tubes  larger 
at  one  end  than  the  other.  These 
are  made  by  a  brightly  colored 
worm,  Cistenides  Gouldii,  Fig.  28, 
which  may  sometimes  be  found  in 
them,  with  only  two  large  clusters 
of  bristles  visible  in  the  larger  end. 
A  large  part  of  the  tubes  dug  at  any 
time,  however,  prove  to  be  empty. 
In  digging  worms  in  mud,  there 


Fig.  26.—  Head  of  Nereis  vf- 

rens,   with    laws    extended. 

[From  Tumbuii.] 


is  often  found  one  that  looks,  when  contracted,  like  a  drop 
of  blood  ;  but  if  it  is  cleared  of  dirt  and  placed  in  clean 


WORMS.  25 

water,  it  soon  begins  to  extend  its  tentacles    running  them 


Fig.  27.  —  Clymenella  torquata,  removed  from  its  tube. 

out  like  so  many  separate  worms  in  alt  directions,  Fig.  29. 
With  these  tentacles  it  gathers  in  dirt  to   cover  itself  and 

-i 


Fig.  28.  —  Ctstenides  Gortldii,  removed  from  its  tube. 

will  sweep  the  bottom  of  the  dish  clean. 
Under  stones  on  the  beach  and  among  roots  of  seaweed 


Fig.  29.  —  Polycirrus  eximius,  with  its  tentacles  extended. 

are  generally  found  some    short  flat  worms   that   resemble 


26 


LIFE    ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


centipedes  at  first  sight.  This  resemblance  is  not  so  great 
if  the  under  side  is  examined,  for  here  the  short  seg- 
ments and  large  number  of  paddles 
and  bristles  can  be  more  distinctly 
seen.  The  back  is  disguised  by 
flat  scales  attached  to  some  of 
the  segments  and  lying  over  one 
another,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole 
animal.  The  shape  of  the  ap- 
pendages on  the  sides  and  head 
can  best 
be  seen 
by  remov- 
ing some 
of  these 
scales,  as 
has  been 
done  in 
the  worm, 
Lepidono- 
tus  squa- 

Fig.  30.  — A  Scaly  Worm,  Lepi-  mafUS,   an 
donatus    sqnamatus.       Three 
scales  have  been  removed  from  jllug  tra- 
the  left  side  to  show  the  appen- 

t  i  o  n    of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

Under    the     same    stones    will 
often  be  found  worms  of  another  Fig.«.— ANemertB»,^U 

ndis.     The     two     small 

kind,  Nemertines,  Fig.  31,  without 

segments     or    side     appendages. 

They  are  olive  -green  or  dull  reddish-brown,  and  lie  together 

in  clusters  stuck  to  the  under  sides  of  the   stones.     They 


CC— 


«*  v- 

figures 


WORMS.  2  7 

are  often  twisted  into  the  most  irregular  shapes  and  crawl  by 
swelling  out  certain  parts  of  the  body  and  drawing  toward 
them  the  parts  behind.  These  worms  have  a  peculiar  organ, 
the  proboscis,  which  is  thrust  out  when  they  are  injured,  or 
from  any  cause  contract  suddenly. 

Another  Nemertine,  Cerebratulus  ingens,  lives  buried  in 
the  mud  and  is  occasionally  turned  out  in  digging  clams  and 
worms.  It  is  white  and  has  been  found  as  much  as  fifteen 
feet  long  and  an  inch  broad.  The  proboscis  is  proportion- 
ally long  and  looks  like  another  worm  of  a  smaller  kind. 

Under  the  same  stones  occurs  one  of  the  flat  worms, 
Planarians,  half  as  broad  as  long,  with  two  clusters  of  eyes 
at  the  forward  end  which  are  about  all  that  distinguish 
one  end  from  the  other.  These  worms  lie  so  close  to  the 
stones  that  they  are  apt  to  be  overlooked,  and  they  can  be 
seen  to  a  much  better  advantage  when  placed  in  a  glass  ves- 
sel where  both  sides  of  them  are  visible. 

While  these  slow  moving  worms  stick  to  the  under  sides 
of  stones,  great  numbers  of  much  livelier  animals  are  often 
found  on  the  mud  beneath.  These  are  smalt  Crustacea 
known  as  Amphipods.  They  are  flattened  sidewise  so  that 
they  cannot  stand  upright  but  lie  on  their  sides,  and  when 
disturbed  kick  about  with  feet  and  tail  trying  to  get  under 
something.  In  water  they  move  much  more  gracefully, 
swimming  rapidly  by  means  of  the  paddles  under  their  tails. 
As  these  are  types  of  a  large  group  of  aquatic  animals  let  us 
examine  one  more  closely.  Fig.  32  is  Gatnmarus  ornatus, 
one  of  the  commonest  species  found  under  stones.  Under 
the  middle  of  the  body  are  seven  pairs  of  legs  of  three 
kinds  :  the  two  forward  pairs  having  claws  for  grasping,  the 


28  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

next  two  pairs  being  short  and  the  other  three  longer  and 
directed  backward  or  turned  up  over  the  sides  of  the  body. 
Behind  these  middle  legs  are  six  other  pairs,  three  of  which 
are  thin  and  flat  for  swimming ;  while  the  three  hinder  ones 
are  short  and  stout  and  close  together  under  the  tail,  with 
which  they  form  a  powerful  swimming  or  leaping  organ.  Under 
the  head  are  four  more  pairs  of  appendages  used  as  jaws  and 
in  front  are  two  pairs  of  antennae  or  feelers  near  the  base  of 
which  are  the  eyes. 

Som:   of  these   Amphipods   make   tubes   for   themselves 


Gammarus  ornatus  IUw. 
Fig.  32. 

under  stones ;  and,  if  taken  out  and  placed  in  water,  will 
gather  all  the  grains  of  sand  and  dirt  they  can  find  and 
join  them  together  until  they  get  a  pile  large  enough  to  hide 
under.  The  little  stones  are  joined  together  by  threads, 
like  the  threads  of  spiders  and  caterpillars,  spun  from  the 
two  small  pairs  of  legs  under  the  middle  of  the  body,  which 
are  perforated  at  the  end  and  contain  glands  which  secrete 
a  fluid  that  hardens  in  water.  Most  of  the  Amphipods  live 
farther  down  the  shore  among  seaweeds  that  are  always 
under  water,  and  great  numbers  of  them  may  be  caught  by 


ISOPODS. 


29 


sweeping  among  these  with  a  net ;  but  there  are  a  few 
species,  the  sand  fleas,  that  live  up  to  or  above  high  water 
mark  among  the  sand  and  rubbish.  The  common  sand  flea, 
Orchestia  agilis,  is  very  abundant  on  sandy  beaches,  and 
leaps  about  by  the  appendages  near  the  tail,  its  gait  resem- 
bling that  of  tlie  well  known  parasitic  insect. 

Small  Crustacea  of  another  kind  are  often  found  under 
stones  along  the  shore,  which  are  flattened  downward  instead 
of  sidewise.  These  are  the  Is- 
opods,  and  resemble  the  garden 
"sow  bugs."  They  have  the 
same  number  of  appendages  as 
the  Amphipods,  but  the  seven 
pairs  of  feet  of  the  middle  of  the 
body  are  all  alike.  The  swim- 
ming feet  are  closed  up  under 
the  tail  and  the  front  pair  forms 
a  cover  for  the  others. 

Idotaa  irrorata,  Fig.  33,  is  a 
common  species,  but  is  oftener 
found  among  the  eelgrass  farther 
out.  It  varies  greatly  in  color, 
some  individuals  being  red,  others 
dark  green  or  yellow,  and  others  again  striped  or  spotted. 
Idotcea  phosphorea  is  oftener  found  under  stones.  It  is  more 
pointed  behind  and  is  variously  marked  with  gray  and  white 
spots  like  the  stones  on  which  it  lives.  Another  Isopod, 
Sphczroma  quadridentata  is  marked  much  in  the  same  way 
and  lives  under  stones.  It  is  short  and  oval  and  has  the 


Idotcea  irrorata  Say. 
Fig.  33- 


30  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

habit  of  rolling  up  in  a  ball,  when  threatened,  and  falling 
out  of  the  way  like  some  of  the  sow  bugs. 

When  dredging  once  with  a  fisherman,  he  called  our 
attention  to  the  small  flies  which  were  gathered  by  hundreds 
under  the  sides  of  the  boat  just  above  the  water ;  and  then, 
getting  his  broom,  carefully  swept  them  off  because,  as  he 
said,  they  would  turn  into  worms  and 
eat  into  the  wood  of  the  boat.  The  flies 
in  their  young  stages  live  swimming  in 
the  salt  water,  but  the  injury  to  the  wood 
is  caused  by  a  small  isopod,  Limnoria 

\  lignontm,  Fig.  34,  which  gnaws  out  mi- 
i  A 

mite  holes  as  close  together  as  they  can 
be  without  breaking  into  each  other.  The 
wood  thus  wears  and  decays  much  faster 
than  it  otherwise  would,  the  softer  parts 
most  rapidly,  so  that  the  knots  are  left 
£  projecting  several  inches  beyond  the  sur- 
face of  the  timbers  so  eaten. 
Among  the  largest  Crustacea  to  be  found  between  tides 
are  the  "fiddler-crabs,"  Gelasimus,  Fig.  35.  The  males 
have  one  of  the  front  claws  very  large  and  carry  it  across 
the  front  of  the  body,  in  somewhat  the  same  position  as 
the  arm  of  a  fiddler.  The  habits  of  one  of  these  crabs, 
Gelasimus  pugilator,  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Smith.* 
"They  live  on  sandy  beaches  near  high  water  mark,  in 
holes  in  the  sand,  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter  and 


Isopod> 


*  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyaid  Sound,  p.  43. 


FIDDLER  CRAB. 


a  foot  or  more  in  depth.  Mr.  Smith,  by  lying  perfectly  still 
for  some  time  in  the  sand,  succeeded  in  witnessing  their 
mode  of  dig- 
ging. In  doing 
this  they  drag 
up  pellets  of 
moist  sand, 
which  they  car- 
ry under  the 
three  anterior 
legs  on  the  rear 
side  (the  crab 
walks  side- 
wise),  climbing 
out  of  their 
burrows  by 
means  of  the 
legs  of  the  side 
in  front,  aided 
by  the  poste- 
rior leg  of  the 
other  side.  Af- 
ter arriving  at 
the  mouth  of 
their  burrows 
and  taking  a 
cautious  survey 
of  the  land- 


35-  —  Fiddler  Crab,  Gelasiinns pngilator. 


scape,  they  run  quickly  to  the  distance  often  of  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  burrow  before  dropping  their  load,  using  the 


32  LIFE  ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

same  legs  as  before  and  carrying  the  dirt  in  the  same  man- 
ner. They  then  take  another  careful  survey  of  the  sur- 
roundings, run  nimbly  back  to  the  hole,  and,  after  again 
turning  their  pedunculated  eyes  in -every  direction,  suddenly 
disappear,  soon  to  reappear  with  another  load.  They  work 
in  this  way  both  in  the  night  and  in  the  brightest  sunshine? 
whenever  the  tide  is  out  and  the  weather  is  suitable.  In 
coming  out  of  or  going  into  their  burrows,  either  side  may 
go  in  advance,  but  the  male  more  commonly  comes  out  with 
the  large  claw  forward.  According  to  Mr.  Smith  this  species 
is  a  vegetarian,  feeding  upon  the  minute  algae  which  grow 
upon  the  moist  sand.  In  feeding,  the  males  use  only  the 
small  claw  with  which  they  pick  up  bits  of  algse  daintily ; 
the  females  use  indifferently  either  of  their  small  claws  for 
this  purpose.  They  always  swallow  more  or  less  sand  with 
their  food.  Mr.  Smith  also .  saw  these  crabs  engaged  in 
scraping  up  tho  surface  of  the  sand,  where  covered  with 
their  favorite  algae,  which  they  formed  into  pellets  and  car- 
ried into  their  holes,  in  the  same  way  that  they  bring  sand 
out, — doubtless  storing  it  until  needed  for  food,  for  he  often 
found  large  quantities  stored  in  the  terminal  chamber."  These 
crabs  are  very  hardy  and  easily  kept  in  confinement  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water  in  which  they  keep  in  incessant 
motion  for  months  without  taking  any  visible  food. 


ANIMALS  BELOW  LOW  WATER  MARK, 


ANIMALS  NEAR  LOW  WATER  MARK. 

FARTHER  down  the  shore  just  below  low  water,  or  only 
uncovered  at  lowest  tides,  is  a  region  which  is  inhabited  by 
a  greater  variety  of  animals  than  that  between  tides,  and 
will  repay  the  trouble  of  wading  and  rowing  along  its  borders. 
There  live  the  crabs  and  lobsters,  the  latter  well  known  at 
least  in  their  dead  and  cooked  condition,  Fig.  36.  If  we 
compare  a  lobster  with  the  small  Crustacea  described  in  the 
last  chapter,  we  shall  notice  that  the  joints  of  the  middle 
portion  of  the  body  are  covered  up  by  a  shell,  which  ex- 
tends back  over  them  from  the  head,  and  under  the  edges 
of  this  shell  are  a  series  of  gills  attached  to  the  basal  joints 
of  the  limbs.  Five  pairs  of  limbs  are  adapted  for  walking, 
the  front  pair  of  which  have  the  large  claws  with  which  the 
lobster  seizes  its  prey. 

3  33 


34 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


In  front  of  the  large  claws  are  six  pairs  of  smaller  limbs 
used  for  chewing,  and  in  front  of  these  the  eyes  raised  on 

short  stalks  and  two  pairs  of  an- 
tennae or  feelers,  or,  as  fisher- 
men call  them,  smellers.  The 
hinder  part  of  the  body  resem- 
bles more  that  of  the  other 
Crustacea ;  its  joints  are  distinct 
and  it  has  six  pairs  of  limbs 
for  swimming,  the  hinder  pair 
of  which  are  very  large  and 
broad,  and  form,  with  the  last 
joint  of  the  body,  a  powerful 
swimming  or  leaping  organ 
which  the  lobster  strikes  for- 
ward suddenly  when  alarmed, 
and  so  darts  backward  into  its 
hole.  Young  lobsters  swim  for- 
ward by  the  little  feet  under  the 
tail,  but  the  adults  creep  on  the 
bottom  most  of  the  time.  The 
whole  body  is  covered  with  a 
shell  so  hard  that  the  animal 
has  to  shed  it  from  time  to  time 
as  it  grows  larger.  The  shell 
Ameri-  cracks  along  the  middle  of  the 
back,  the  front  part  separates 
from  the  tail  and  the  limbs,  even  the  large  claws  are  drawn 
out  in  a  soft  and  flabby  condition.  The  skin  of  the  eyes, 
the  antennae  and  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  are 


Fig.  36. -Lobster, 

canus. 


LOBSTER. 


35 


all  shed  at  these  times.  The  limbs  of  lobsters  and  crabs 
break  off  easily,  but  are  reproduced  and  after  the  next 
moult  appear  again,  smaller  than  before  but  of  the  same 
shape  and  number  of  joints. 

The  eggs  of  lobsters  are  often  to  be  seen  on  specimens 
in  the  market,  being  carried  under  the  tail  attached  to  the 
swimming  feet  until  they  hatch.  The  young  lobsters  can 
be  easily  seen  through  the  egg,  in  the  later  stages,  with  the 


Fig-  37-  —Young  Lobsters;  back  and  profile,  below  a  leg  and  antenna. 

feet  packed  in  underneath  them  and  the  eyes  much  larger 
in  proportion  than  in  the  adult.  When  they  hatch  they 
differ  greatly  from  the  adult  both  in  shape  and  habits,  Fig. 
37.  Their  five  pairs  of  limbs  and  the  pair  of  foot  jaws  in 
front  of  them  are  all  about  of  the  same  size,  the  big  claws 
being  only  slightly  larger  than  the  others.  All  these  limbs 
are  two-branched,  one  of  the  branches  turning;  outward  and 


LIFE    ON    THE    SEASHORE. 


upward  above  the  other.  The  six  pairs  of  feet  under  the 
tail  are  also  nearly  equal  in  size,  the  hinder  part  not  yet 
enlarged  as  in  the  adult ;  while  the  terminal  joint  of  the 
body,  which  in  the  adult  is  narrowed  toward  the  tip,  is  in 
the  young  widened  into  a  fish-tail  shape.  On  the  back 

of  the  abdomen,  too,  are  five 
spines  on  the  middle  of  the 
segments,  that  disappear  al- 
together in  the  adult.  These 
little  lobsters  swim  at  the 
surface  until  they  get  the 
shape  and  appearance  of 
the  adult,  and  the  larger  part 
are  eaten  by  other  animals 
or  killed  in  some  way  or 
other.  When  they  get  to  be 
an  inch  long  they  begin  to 
live  more  at  the  bottom,  and 
from  this  size  upward  are 
often  found  under  stones 
even  above  low  water  mark. 
As  they  grow  up,  however, 
they  keep  farther  down  a- 


mong     the     rocks    that    are 


Fig.  38.  —  Common  Shrimp,  Crangon  v nl-    always    Well    Under  water    and 
garis.     Natural  size. 

here  the  traps  for  them   are 

set.  These  are  cages  made  of  laths  with  funnel-shaped 
entrances  like  a  rat  trap,  through  which  the  lobsters  go  after 
the  bait  of  dead  fish  and  have  not  sense  enough  to  find 
their  way  out  again. 


SHRIMPS. 


37 


The  common  shrimp,  Crangon  vulgaris,  Fig.  38,  is  often 
mistaken  for  the  young  of  the  lobster  which  it  does  not, 
however,  much  resemble.  It  lives  on  sandy  or  muddy  shores 
and  changes  its  color  to  imitate  that  of  the  bottom  on  which 


it  rests.  A  dark  individual,  if  placed  in  a  white  bowl,  will 
soon  become  much  lighter.  This  shrimp  does  not  grow 
much  larger  than  the  figure  and  much  smaller  ones  are 
often  found  with  eggs. 


38  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

The  crabs  may  be  considered  as  shortened  lobsters.  The 
middle  portion  of  their  bodies  is  covered  up  by  a  similar 
shell  under  the  edges  of  which  are  the  basal  joints  of  the 
legs  with  the  gills  attached.  The  tail  is  very  small  and 
folded  under  the  middle  portion  of  the  body,  but  if  it  is 
turned  outward  the  same  appendages  are  found  as  in  the 


Fig.  40. —  Young  Crab,  "  Zoea." 

lobster.  The  same  number  of  jaws  and  palpi  are  also  at- 
tached to  the  head.  The  crabs  are  usually  wider  than  long 
and  the  habit  of  walking  sidewise  is  common.  The  best 
known  crab  along  the  whole  coast  is  Cancer  irroratus, 
Fig.  39.  It  lives  not  far  from  the  surface  of  the  water, 
occasionally  above  low  water  mark  under  stones  and  sea- 
weed, and  sometimes  completely  buried  in  mud.  In  its 


CRABS. 


39 


growth  from  the  egg  this  crab  goes  through  some  very 
curious  changes,  differing  so  much,  in  its  early  stages,  from 
thj  a.lult  that  the  young  were  long  considered  as  belonging 
to  entirely  distinct  species.  The  eggs  are  carried  under  the 
tail  like  those  of'  lobsters  until  they  hatch  and  become  little 
swimming  animals  like  Fig.  -40,  but  not  more  than  a  tenth  of 
an  inch  in  length. 
Its  legs  have  not 
yet  grown,  and  it 
swims  in  a  jerky 
way  by  the  front 
appendages  which 
are  eventually  to 
become  mouth  or- 
gans. As  it  be- 
comes older,  the 
legs  appear  just 
behind  these  swim- 
ming appendages, 
between  them  and 
the  tail,  and  be- 
come gradually 
larger  until  the 
next  metamorpho-  Fig>  4I  •  ~  Young  Crab' ' '  Mesal°Ps- 

sis.  The  tail  is  as  large  in  proportion  as  that  of  a  young 
lobster  and  .  carried  extended  behind.  These  little  crabs 
swim  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  if  kept,  in  a  dish  col- 
lect around  the  edges  keeping  in  constant  motion,  crowding 
each  other  out  of  the  way  with  the  sharp  points  on  their 
heads.  They  are  nearly  transparent  and  sometimes  can  only 


40  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

be  found  by  their  dark  eyes,  and  spots  on  various  parts  of 
the  body.  These  little  crabs  moult  several  times  in  this 
stage,  but  finally  a  great  change  takes  place  and  they  be- 
come like  Fig.  41,  a  little  more  like  the  adult  crab.  They 
now  have -their  five  pairs  of  legs ;  but  the  eyes  are  still  enor- 
mously large,  there  are  long  spines  on  the  back,  the  abdomen 
is  still  carried  extended,  and  they  have  swimming  feet  which 
are  used  like  those  of  the  lobster.  They  still  swim  at  the 
surface,  but  rest  on  the  bottom  at  times  and  are  soon  ready 
for  another  metamorphosis.  In  the  next  stage,  the  habit  of 
swimming  is  given  up,  the  tail  is  turned  under  the  body  and 
the  little  crab  lives  on  the  bottom  like  an  adult ;  but  still  the 
body  is  longer  and  the  shape  very  different  from  the  old 
crabs  and  it  is  only  after  several  more  moults  that  the  final 
form  is  reached.  A  similar  series  of  change  is  gone  through 
by  the  other  crabs,  though  they  have  not  been  so  well  made 
out  as  in  this  species.  The  nearest  relative  of  this  crab  is 
Cancer  borealis,  which  is  found  with  and  sometimes  mis- 
taken for  it.  It  is  about  the  same  size  but  is  more  oval, 
thicker,  and  much  more  peaceful  in  its  habits.  When  the 
tides  are  unusually  low,  some  of  these  crabs  are  occasionally 
found  holding  on  the  rocks  in  the  most  exposed  places, 
stupidly  waiting  for  the  water  to  rise  and  cover  them  instead 
of  following  it  down  or  hiding  comfortably  under  damp 
seaweed  as  the  other  species  does.  They  will  allow  them- 
selves to  be  picked  up  without  showing  fight  and  will  lie 
quietly  for  hours,  even  if  several  are  piled  up  together,  in 
this  respect  differing  decidedly  from  the  common  kind. 

The   mud   crabs,  Panopeus,   Fig.   42,  are   found   among 
stones  or  buried  in  mud,  and  when  caught  stretch  out  their 


CRABS. 


legs  stiffly  as  far  as  they  can,  so  as  to  make  themselves  as 
unpleasant  to  handle  as  possible.  They  are  of  small  size 
and  are  found  along  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod. 

The  "oyster  crab"  is  carried  wherever  oysters  are.  The 
female  lives  inside  the  shells  of  oysters  and  is  often  found 
among  oysters  sold  for  food  and  cooked  with  them,  but  the 
males  are  rare  and  occasionally  found  swimming  free  in  the 
water. 

The  "blue  crab,"  Fig.  43,  which  is  much  eaten  in  New 
York  and  southward,  and 
occasionally  found  north  of 
Cape  Cod,  lives  also  near 
low  water  on  muddy  shores 
and  among  eelgrass  where 
it  often  conceals  itself  in 
the  mud.  Unlike  the  com- 
mon shore  crabs,  Cancer, 
it  swims  readily  by  the  help 
of  paddles  on  its  hind  legs. 
For  eating,  the  blue  crabs 
are  preferred  "soft-shelled," 
that  is,  after  they  have  moulted  and  before  the  new  skin  has 
hardened.  They  seem  to  moult  at  various  times  during  the 
summer  and  to  remain  soft  a  considerable  time. 

There  is  another  swimming  crab,  Platyonichus  ocellatus, 
Fig.  44,  found  from  Cape  Cod  southward  very  different  from 
the  last.  It  has  a  rounded  body  and  is  white  with  the  back 
covered  with  red  and  purple  rings.  It  swims  rapidly  at  the 
surface,  even  when  full  grown,  but  lives  usually  near  the 
sandy  bottom,  in  which  it  can  quickly  bury  itself  for  con- 


Fig.  42.  —  Panopeus  depressus. 
Mud  crab. 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


cealment,  or  to  escape  being  washed  ashore  in  rough  weather. 
It  feeds  on  dead  animals  of  any  kind  and  soon  finds  any- 
thing decaying  that  may  be  left  in  the  water. 

The  "spider  crab,"  Fig.  45,  is  a  round  long-legged  species 


that  lives  among  mud  and  weeds  and  has  a  coat  of  hair  that 
entangles  dirt  of  all  kinds,  furnishing  a  place  of  attachment 
for  seaweeds  and  hydroids  which  help  still  more  to  conceal 
the  animal.  It  grows  to  be  a  foot  or  more  across. 


CRABS.  43 

The  "hermit  crabs,"  Fig.  46,  are  among  the  most  amusing 
animals  of  this  group,  on  account  of  their  peculiar  habit  of 
covering  the  hinder  part  of  their  bodies  with  a  snail  shell,  or 
any  other  hollow  object  which  they  can  carry  about  with 
them.  Like  the  crabs,  they  swim  at  the  surface  when  young, 
but  at  an  early  age  settle  to  the  bottom  and  begin  to  live  in 


Fig.  44. — Lady  crab,  Platyonichus  ocellatus. 

deserted  shells.  Their  tails  are  soft  and  have  strong  hooked 
appendages  at  the  end  for  holding  into  the  shell.  Their  legs 
are  crowded  forward,  so  as  to  project  from  the  shell  and 
enable  the  crabs  to  walk  about,  dragging  the  shell  after  them, 
without  exposing  much  of  their  bodies.  As  they  increase  in 
size  they  have  to  leave  their  snail  shells  and  find  larger  ones, 
going  about  from  shell  to  shell  until  they  are  fitted.  These 


44 


LIFE    ON   THE    SEASHORE. 


crabs  are  hard  to  keep  in  confinement,  as  they  need  a  good 
deal  of  clean  water  to  keep  them  healthy. 

The  Amphipods  and  Isopods  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter 
are  still  more  abundant  down  among  the  seaweeds,  and 
among  them  occurs  a  curious  form,  Caprella,  Fig.  47,  which 
at  first  sight  would  not  be  recognized  as  related  to  them. 
These  Caprellas  are  very  common  on  the  eelgrass,  holding 


Fig.  45.  —  Spider  crab,  Libinia  canaliculata. 

on  by  the  hinder  legs  like  canker  worms  and  swingi  ng  the 
forward  part  of  the  body  up  and  down.  The  middle  legs 
are  rudimentary. 

The  horseshoe  crab,  Fig.  48,  is  common  along  muddy  and 
sandy  shores,  and  in  the  early  summer  pairs  of  them  come 
up  on  the  shores  to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  sand.  The  cast- 
off  skins  of  these  animals  are  often  found  along  the  shores  of 
muddy  rivers.  The  horseshoe  crab  is  interesting  as  being 
the  last  surviving  relative  of  a  group  of  animals  which  have 


SNAILS. 


45 


died  out  and  are  now  only  known  in  a  fossil  state.  It  differs 
greatly  from  the  crabs  and  resembles  in  some  respects  the 
spiders,  like  which  it  has  six  pairs  of  limbs  and  no  antennae. 

There  are  other  curious  animals  often  found  under  stones, 
and  among  seaweeds  and  hydroicls,  that  are  nearly  all  legs, 
Fig.  49,  known  as  Pycnogonidcz.  Most  of  them  live  on 
hydroids.  -The  eggs  are  carried  by  the  mother,  attached 
in  balls  around  the  front  limbs  until  they  hatch;  then 
the  young,  which 
differ  considerably 
from  the  adult,  at- 
tach themselves  to 
the  hydroids  and  go 
through  metamor- 
phoses very  much 
like  those  of  some 
parasitic  mites,  like 
the  red  mite  found 
on  grasshoppers,  for 
instance.  The  body 
of  the  adult  is  so 
shaped  that  there  is 
no  room  for  the  in- 
ternal organs,  except  in  the  legs  and  branches  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  eggs  extend  into  these. 

On  sandy  mud,  just  below  low  water,  lives  one  of  the 
largest  snails  of  the  coast,  Lunatia  heros,  Fig.  50.  When 
in  motion,  the  soft  part  of  the  body  is  extended  out  of  the 
shell  to  three  or  four  times  the  size  of  the  latter,  Fig.  51, 
so  that  the  shell  is  nearly  covered  up ;  but  if  the  animal  is 


Fig.  46.  —  Hermit  Crab,  Enpagurus  bernhardus, 
in  a  shell  of  Lunatia  heros. 


46 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


touched  it  squeezes  out  the  water  and  in  a  few  moments 
draws  into  the  shell  again,  covering  itself  with  the  horny 
operculum  which  it  carries  on  its  back.  It  creeps  about 

partly  buried  in  the 
sand  searching  for  its 
food.  It  lives  on  other 
snails  and  bivalve  mol- 

Fig.  47.—  Caprella  geometrica,  enlarged.  hisks,     through    whoSC 

shell  it  drills  by  means  of  the  teeth  on  the  tongue,  Fig.  5  2, 
and  scrapes  out  the  contents  through  the  hole.  The  eggs  of 
this  snail,  which  are  laid  in  a  ring  mixed  with  sand,  Fig.  53, 
may  often  be  picked  up  on  the  beach.  If  one  of  these  be 
held  up  to  the  light  the  egg  cases  can 
be  seen  as  transparent  round  spots  in 
each  of  which  are  several  eggs. 

On  sandy  shores  great  numbers  of 
the  little  snail,  Tritia  trivittata,  Fig. 
54,  are  often  found  creeping  about 
through  the  sand  leaving  shallow  fur- 
rows after  them.  They  are  very  active 
animals  for  snails,  and  when  kept  in 
clean  water  will  sometimes  stretch  out 
to  their  full  length  and  jump  about  the 
dish.  On  more  muddy  flats  another 
species,  Ilyanassa  obseleta,  Fig.  55,  is 
generally  to  be  found  following  the 
same  habits.  Both  species  may  be  seen  covering  dead 
fish  or  anything  decaying  and  are  of  great  use  as  scaven- 
gers. 

A  little  brown  shelled  snail,  Locuna  vine  fa,  Fig.  56,  is  very 


Fig.  48.  —  Limnhts poly- 
hemus.  [From  Tenney's 
'oology.] 


SNAILS. 


47 


common  on  the  eelgrass  and  makes  the  ring-shaped  clusters 
of  eggs  so  common  there. 

The  branching  plant-like  growths  along  the  shore  are  most 
of  them  not  plants  at  all  but  hydroids,  stationary  animals 
related  to  the  jelly-fishes  and  some  of  them  being  the  young 
of  jelly-fishes  (an  account  of  which  will  be  given  further  on) . 
Among  these  hydroids  is  the  favorite  hiding  place  of  many 


Fig.  49. 

of  the  "Nudibranchs,"  or  naked  gilled  snails.  These  are 
often  brightly  colored  and  have  no  shells ;  but,  in  place  of 
them,  appendages  of  various  shapes  along  the  back,  which 
make  them  resemble  the  branching  objects  among  which 
they  live.  Their  eggs  are  laid  in  lumps  of  transparent  jelly 
attached  to  plants  and  hydroids  and  the  young  hatch  as 
many  snails  do,  with  little  shells  with  one  or  two  spirals  and 
with  two  lobes  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  on  the  edges  of 


48 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


which  are  cilia  by  which  the  animals  swim,  Fig.  57.  As  they 
get  older  they  lose  the  ciliated  lobes  and  begin  to  creep  on 
the  foot  like  old  snails ;  but  the  nudibranchs,  at  this  time, 

lose  also  the  shell  and 
have  on  the  back  the  vari- 
ous appendages  which 
have  been  mentioned. 
The  largest  native  spe- 
cies is  Dendronotus 
arborescens,  Fig.  58,  a1 
long  brownish  snail  with 
tree-shaped  appendages 
along  the  back  that  make 
it  look  like  a  mass  of 
seaweed.  This  resem- 
blance is  still  greater 
when  the  animal  shortens  itself  and  gathers  the  branches 
together. 

Several  species  of  ^Eolis,  Fig.  59,  are  transparent  white 


Fig.  50.  —  Shell  of  Lunatia  keros. 


.  51. — Lundtia  keros  crawling,  fully  expanded. 

with  red  or  brownish  papillae  arranged  in  rows  on  each  side 
of  the  body.  Another  species,  Doto  coronata  has  a  few 
club-shaped  red  appendages  covered  with  black  spots.  The 


SNAILS. 


49 


genus  Doris  has  a  rosette  of  soft  appendages  at  the  posterior 
end  of  the  body,  Fig.  60.  The  common  Doris  pallida  is 
white  and  has  the  back  covered  with  white  knobs.  In  cool 
weather  these  naked  snails  can 
be  kept  easily  in  confinement  for 
several  days.  They  are  very 
hard  to  preserve  in  any  way, 
and,  when  contracted  by  alco- 
hol, many  different  species  are 
so  much  alike  that  they  can  only 
be  distinguished  by  the  teeth 
on  their  tongues,  which  are  the 
only  hard  parts  to  their  bodies . 

Several  shallow  water  bivalves  have  been  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  clam  in  the  last  chapter,  but  none  is 
better  known  than  the  oyster.  This  mollusk  grows  naturally 
from  Cape  Cod  southward  and  is  found  in  places  farther 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  53. — Ring  of  sand  containing  eggs  of  Lunatia  heros. 

north  as  far  as  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  old  shells  are 
found  at  so  many  places  along  the  coast  that  it  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  formerly  at  many  more  points  north  of  Cape 
4 


50  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

Cod.  The  oysters,  now  brought  from  southern  waters  and 
kept  in  beds  north  of  this  point,  to  fatten  and  be  taken  up 
as  wanted,  do  not  breed  there  on  account  of  the  coldness  of 
the  water  or  some  other  cause.  The  oyster  eggs 
are  very  small  and  are  discharged  into  the  water 
where  they  develop  in  a  few  days  into  little 
swimming  larvae,  Fig.  61.  Rudiments  of  the 
shell  soon  appear  and  the  young,  as  further 
rMa54*^-  developed,  is  shown  in  Figs.  62  and  63.  They 
soon  begin  to  settle  to  the  bottom  and  those 
which  fall  in  suitable  places  become  attached  by  the  edge 
of  the  shell  which,  as  it  grows,  cements  itself  to  stones  or 
shells,  or  any  solid  substance  on  the  bottom, 
Fig.  64.  The  young  which  settle  on  the  mud 
come  to  nothing,  and  those  which  attach  in 
shallow'  water  which  is  frozen  in  winter  are  all 
killed  off  before  the  next  season,  so  that  not 
one  egg  in  a  million  produces  a  full  grown 
oyster.  Although  the  young  become  attached 
and  start  best  on  a  hard  bottom,  the  half  grown  oysters 
fatten  better  on  muddy  bottoms,  full  of  microscopic  plants, 
and  it  is  therefore  customary  to  dredge  up  young 
oysters  and  "plant"  them  on  muddy  grounds 
where  they  are  left  to  grow  a  year  or  two  before 
being  gathered  for  the  market. 
1  Lacuna  The  differences  between  various  kinds  of 

vincta. 

oysters  depend  much  on  the  kind  of  bottom  on 
which  they  fatten ;  the  best  places  being  generally  shallow 
bays  and  mouths  of  rivers  where  the  water  is  warm  and 
brackish.  The  shells  of  oysters  furnish  good  attachments 


OYSTERS. 


for  their  own  young,  and  for  many  other  animals  which  are 
carried  with  the  oysters  to  distant  parts  of  the  coast  where 
they  do  not  naturally  grow. 

The  shells  of  oysters,  like  those  of  other  mollusks,  are 
formed  from  the  mantle,  as  it  is  called,  a  fold  of  skin  that 
•lines  the  shell  on  the  inside.  This  secretes  from  its  whole 
surface  the  pearly  lining  of  the  shell,  and  from  its  outer  edge 
the  harder  part  that  is  added  to  the  outside  which  usually 
shows  lines  of  growth,  like  the  rings  in  a  tree,  where  the 
increase  has  not  taken  place  at  a  uniform  rate.  Oyster  shells 
also  show  their  age  by 
the  deeper  grooves 
between  the  portions 
of  the  shell,  formed 
in  different  seasons 
which  in  some  shells 
are  very  distinct. 
Pearls  are  formed 
when  sand  or  any 
foreign  substance  gets 
between  the  mantle  and  the  shell,  causing  the  secretion 
of  the  shell  lining  to  go  on  more  rapidly  at  that  point,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  pearl  depends  on  the  kind  of  lining  which 
the  shell  naturally  has,  those  of  the  oyster  being  dull  and 
opaque  like  the  rest  of  the  shell. 

The  common  "scollop,"  Pec  fen  irradians,  Fig.  65,  lives 
along  the  shore  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod,  on  muddy  bottoms 
and  among  the  eelgrass,  where  it  lies  at  rest  with  the  shell 
slightly  open,  showing  the  thickened  edges  of  the  mantle, 
fringed  above  and  below  with  tentacles  among  the  bases  of 


Fig-  57^  —  Young  of  Eolis  diversa. 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


which  are  two  rows  of  eyes  extending  round  the  shell.  The 
scollops  can  swim  by  opening  the  shell  and  closing  it  sud- 
denly, driving  themselves 
backward.  The  muscle 
which  closes  the  shell  is 
large  and  strong  and  is 
the  part  which  is  used  for 
food,  the  rest  of  the  scol- 
lop being  thrown  away. 
There  is  a  much  larger 
species,  Pecten  tenuicos- 
tatus,  with  a  nearly  smooth 
shell  that  lives  farther 
north  and  is  often  dredged 
in  deep  water  in  Massa- 
chusetts  bay  and  on  the 
coast  of  Maine. 

There  is  a  very  curious 
bivalve,  Teredo,  Fig.  66, 
that  burrows  into  wood 
just  below  low  water  and 
does  great  damage  to 
ships,  buoys  and  all  kinds 
of  wood-work  under  water. 
The  holes  are  small  at  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  where 
they  are  begun  by  the 
animals  when  young,  but  as  they  grow  they  dig  deeper 
and  enlarge  these  holes  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. The  holes  run  through  the  wood  in  all  directions  but 


TEREDO. 


53 


never  interfere  with  each  other,  twisting  about  wherever 
they  find  room.  The  eggs  remain  in  the  gill  cavities  of 
their  parents  until  they  develop  into  ciliated  larvae,  which  can 
swim  about  in  the  water,  and  soon  have  a 
bivalve  shell  large  enough  to  cover  them. 
They  then  begin  to  attach  themselves  and, 
as  soon  as  they  find  suitable  wood,  to  bore 
into  it.  The  shells  always  remain  very  small 
and  the  animal  grows  chiefly  in  length,  so 
that  it  is  popularly  considered  a  worm.  The 
tubes  through  which  water  runs  in  and  out 
are  small  and  must,  of  course,  always  be  near 
the  outer  opening  of  the  burrow.  The  Te- 
redo does  not  eat  the  wood  which  it  digs  out, 
but  gets  its  food  from  the  water  which  comes  in  through  its 
tubes,  just  as  the  clam  does ;  so  that  paints,  or  other 
poisonous  substances  in  the  wood,  are  not  much  protection 


Fig.  59. — Eolis 
pilata. 


Fig.  60.—  Dorisbifida. 


against  it,  and  it  can  only  be  stopped  by  plates  of  copper  or 
some  such  substance  too  hard  for  them  to  bore  through. 
The  wooden  buoys  used  to  mark  the  channels  into  harbors 


54  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

are  painted  with  copper  paint,  but  are  attacked  wherever 
the  paint  is  rubbed  off  and  in  course  of  time  destroyed  by 
these  animals. 

The  worms,  which  have  been  mentioned  as  occurring  on 
beaches,  and  many  others,  live  also  farther  down  below  low 
tide  and  may  be  found  by  digging  or  dredging ;  but  there 
are  a  few  which  live  above  ground  and  can  hardly  fail  to  be 
seen  while  looking  for  other  animals.  The  eelgrass,  rock- 
weed  and  other  water-plants,  are  often  covered  with  little 


Fig.  61. — Young  of  Oyster.     [From  Brooks.] 

white  spiral  shells  that  are  easily  mistaken  for  those  of  snails 
while  they  are  really  made  by  worms,  Spirorbis.     If  some 
of  these  are  placed  in  a  dish  of  water  the  heads  and  gills 
of  the  worms  will  soon  be  seen  to  protrude.     The  head  is 
surrounded   by  a  collar  from  which   extend   on   each   side 
feather-like  gills  often  brightly  colored.    One  of  the  branches, 
however,  is    club-shaped,  and  when  the  worm   contracts  is 
drawn  in  last,  closing  the  mouth  of  the  shell.     On  the  eel- 
grass  there  is  often  found  a  small  yellow  worm,  Nicolea  sim- 


WORMS. 


55 


plex,  which  lives  in  thin  tubes  covered  with  dirt  with  only  the 
long  appendages  of  the  head  extended.  It  sometimes  comes 
out  of  the  tube  and  can  swim  about  at  the  surface  where  it 
sometimes  gets  into  the  net  with  swimming  animals. 

In  tubes  among  mussels  and  hydroids  there  lives  a  little 
worm,  half  an  inch  long,  Fabridd  Leidyi,  which  often  creeps 
out  when  these  are  kept  a  short  time  in  standing  water.  It 
has  six  feather-like  gills  on  the  head  and  at  the  base  of  them 


Fig.  62.  —  Young  Oyster.     [From  Brooks.] 

a  pair  of  eyes,  and  it  also  has  a  pair  of  eyes  on  the  opposite 
end  of  the  body. 

In  the  same  places  lives  another  worm  which  will  be  men- 
tioned again,  Autolytus.  It  makes  thin  tubes  covered  with 
dirt  but,  in  confinement,  soon  comes  out  of  them  and  spreads 
round  the  dish.  It  has  a  large  number  of  segments  and 
long  appendages  to  each,  and  two  pairs  of  eyes  and  several 
long  tentacles  at  the  head.  One  curious  thing  about  this 
worm  is  that  it  is  often  found  dividing  into  two  worms.  One 
of  the  segments  near  the  middle  gradually  takes  the  form  of 
a  head  with  eyes  and  tentacles  and  in  course  of  time  sepa- 
rates from  the  part  of  the  worm  in  front.  These  tube-living 


56  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

worms  do  not  produce  eggs ;  but  those  which  drop  off  from 
them  behind  develop  into  perfect  males  and  females  and 
swim  about  in  the  water  (as  will  be  noticed  more  fully  here- 
after). 

Among  stone3  and  mussels  are  often  found  lumps  of  gelat- 


Fig.  63. —  Young  Oyster,  seen  edgewise.     [From  Brooks.] 

inous  looking  animals,  covered  with  dirt  and  showing  no 
signs  of  motion  except  by  two  holes  in  each,  which  can  be 
opened  and  closed  and  from  which  streams  of  water  can 
be  ejected.  They  need  a  good  deal  of  washing  to  clean 

them  so  that  their  real  shape 
can  be  seen,  but  when  cleaned 
off,  they  look  like  Fig.  67, 
Molgula  manhattensis,  which 
is  one  of  the  commonest  of 
these  ascidians.  When  young 
they  have  a  tadpole  shape, 
Fig.  68,  and  swim  in  the 
water ;  but  become  attached 
quite  early,  lose  the  tail  and 
Fig.  64.— Young  Oyster.  [After  change  their  form  entirely. 

Verrill.  J 

They  have   two  openings   to 

the  body,  one  the  mouth  into  which  the  water  passes  into 
the  throat  and  through  openings  in  its  sides  into  a  large 


ASCIDIANS.  5  7 

cavity,  from  which  it  escapes  by  the  other  external  opening. 
The  food  passes  down  the  throat  into  the  stomach. 

Other  species  live  singly,  attached  to  stones  :  as  Cynthia 
carnea,  which  is  bright  red  and  has  two  brighter  spots  around 
the  openings.  Cynthia  echinata  is  round  and  is  covered 
with  branching  spines  which  gather  dirt  enough  to  cover  it 
completely.  There  are  other  ascidians  which  grow  in  corn- 


Fig.  65.  —  Scollop,  Pecten  irradians. 

pound  clusters  and  several  of  these  are  found  near  low  water. 
One,  Batryllus  Gouldii,  is  in  circular  clusters,  in  the  centre 
of  each  of  which  is  a  common  discharge  opening  for  the 
water  from  the  respiratory  cavities  of  all  the  members.  At 
first  there  is  only  a  single  circle,  but  they  increase  rapidly 
by  branching  and  at  length  form  large  clusters  of  hundreds 
of  circles,  all  forming  one  jelly-like  mass  often  covering  up 


58  LIFE   OX  THE   SEASHORE. 

entirely  the   leaves  of  eelgrass,  on  which   it   grows,  with  a 
brown  or  greenish  crust  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 

Little  white  clusters  are  often  found  on  eelgrass  and  on 
stones,  which  are  colonies  of  "polyzoa,"  Figs.  69,  71  and 
72.  These  start  from  single  individuals  that  multiply  by 
branching  in  all  directions,  forming  groups  of  hundreds,  all 
more  or  less  connected  together.  These  things  need  a 
microscope  and  a  good  light  to  show  them  to  advantage. 
They  can  be  examined  alive  if  allowed  to  stand  quietly  in 


Fig.  66. — Ship  worm,  Teredo  navalis.     [After  Verrill.J 

water,  when  they  will  put  out  the  ends  of  their  bodies  with 
the  mouth  and  circle  of  tentacles,  Fig.  70.  The  shells  have 
usually  a  large  opening,  through  which  the  animal  expands, 
and  several  small  openings.  They  vary,  however,  in  different 
species,  Fig.  73.  Some  kinds  grow  in  branching  clusters 
instead  of  flat,  as  Bugula  turrita,  Fig.  72,  in  a  spiral. 
Others  branch  in  a  fan-shape.  On  these  branching  kinds  it 
is  easier  to  see  the  little  objects,  like  birds'  heads,  that  are  at- 
tached to  each  shell  and  open  and  shut  without  any  appar- 
ent object,  Fig.  74.  Other  species  have  movable  spines  that 


STARFISHES.  59 

swing  up  and  down  in  the  same  way.     Some  polyzoa  do  not 
make  hard  shells  like  those  which  form  the  white  clusters  on 

4 

stones,  but  soft  and  flexible  ones.    A  very  common  one  makes 
brown  clusters  on  the  rockweed  and 
especially  about  its  roots.     The  young 
polyzoa  just  from   the   egg   have   no 
resemblance   to    the   adult  and  swim 
about  by  cilia,   Figs.    75,   76  and  77. 
As  they  grow  larger  they  have  a  bi- 
valve shell  which  remains  till  they  have 
become  attached  and  begun  to  branch  Fig  6?  _A  simple  Asddiaiij 
into  a  compound  cluster. 

The  triangular  larva,  Fig.  75,  is  the  young  of  Membrani- 
pora  pilosa,  Fig.  69  ;  a  very  common  species,  Fig.  76,  is  the 
same  seen  edgewise.  The  other  larva,  Fig.  77,  is  of  Flus- 
trella  hispida,  one  of  the  soft-shelled  polyzoa  that  form 
clusters  around  rockweed.  Both  figures  are  copied  from 
-  Barrois'  Embryology  of  the  Polyzoa. 

The  starfishes  are  among  the"  most  peculiar  animals  of  the 


Fig.  68.  —  A  young  Ascidian. 

seashore  and  belong  to  a  class,*  the  Echinoderms,  more  of 
which  live  on  land  or  in  fresh  water.  The  common  star- 
fishes, Asterias  forbesii,  Fig.  78,  and  Asterias  vulgaris,  live 
near  low  water  mark,  coming  above  it  occasionally  and  in 
winter  retreating  to  deeper  water.  They  live  on  mollusks 


6o 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


and  are  a  great  nuisance  to  the  oyster  growers.     They  fold 
themselves  around  an  oyster  or  mussel,  turn  their  stomach 


Fig.  69. — Polyzoa,  Membranipora  pilosa, 
much  enlarged,  At  the  left  upper  corner 
is  a  profile  view  of  one  cell. 


Fig,  71.  —  Polyzoa,  Crisia  ebnrnea. 
Round  cluster  enlarged. 


out  of  the  mouth  and  in  between  the  shells  of  the  bivalve 
and    digest   it  without   taking  it   inside  their  bodies.     The 


starfishes  move 
by  ,  suckers  in 
the  fine  grooves 
on  the  under 
side  of  their 
arms.  To  bring 
them  into  use 
they  have  to  be 
fille  d  with 
water  from  the 
water  tubes, 
which  receive 
their  supply 
from  the  po- 
rous 


i    me   po- 

Fig.  72. —  Polyzoa,  Bugula  turrita. 
Colored  Enlarged  twice. 


spot  on  the 
back  of  the  star- 
fish and  carry  it 
through  all  the 
arms  giving  off 
a  branch  to 
each  sucker. 

The  skin  of 
the  starfish  is 
filled  with  little 
hard  plates  and 
from  it  project 
spines  of  vari- 
ous  shapes 
which  have, 


around  the  base,  clusters  of  little  organs  called  pedicellariae, 


STARFISHES. 


61 


Fig.  79,  which,  like  the  similar  organs  on  polyzoa,  have  jaws 
that  open  and  shut  for  no  apparent  purpose  unless  to  prevent 
dirt  from  sticking  to  the 
skin.  At  the  end  of  each 
arm  is  an  eye. 

The  development  of  the 
starfish  is  very  compli- 
cated;  the  eggs  are  laid 
loose  in  the  water,  and 
grow  into  little  larva-like 
worms  that  move  about  in 

Fig.  70.  —  Polyzoa.     A  single  animal  otMem- 
the  Water  by  means  Of  Cilia       hranipora  pilosa  expanded,  much  enlarged. 

and  have  no  trace  of  any  radiate  structure  about  them,  Fig. 
80.  As  they  grow  larger,  they  become 
more  complicated  in  shape  having  long 
arms  with  lines  of  cilia  running  along 
them,  Fig.  81.  The  internal  arrangement 
becomes  more  complicated  at  the  same 
time  which  may  be  easily  seen  as  the 
whole  animal  is  transparent.  While  it  is 
very  young,  a  pair  of  tubes  begin  to  form 
at  the  sides  of  the  stomach,  which  grow 
larger  and  larger  becoming  separate  from 
.the  stomach  and  'opening  outward  by  a 
hole  in  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  first 
Fi  —Pol  zoa  traces  of  the  arms  of  the  starfish  appear 

One  branch  of  Crisia 


eburnea,   much    en- 
larged. 


on  these  water  tubes,  each  side  of  the 
stomach,  as  five  little  lobes  in  a  row  along 
the  tube,  Fig.  81.  As  these  grow  larger  the  rest  of  the 
larva  at  length  begins  to  grow  smaller  and  finally  dis- 


62 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


appears  altogether  inside  the  five  lobes,  which,  instead  of 
remaining  in  a  row  have  bent  around  so  that  the  end 
ones  unite  and  form  a  star.  The  hole  which  lets  water 
into  the  circulating  tubes  in  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the 
larva  becomes  the  colored  porous 
spot  between  the  two  arms  which 
close  together  last. 

Besides  the  common  starfishes 
there  is  a  smaller  smooth  species, 
Cribrella,  which  is  darker  colored, 
red  or  purple  on  the  back  and 
orange  below.  It  develops  in  a 
different  way.  The  eggs  are  laid 
early  in  the  summer  and  carried 
under  the  arms  of  the  mother  until 
the  young  are  able  to  crawl  away. 
Some  of  them,  however,  escape 
and  may  be  sometimes  seen  at  the 
surface  as  bright  red  specks,  moving 
slowly  by  cilia  all  over  them  and 
gradually  changing  into  the  shape 
of  Fig.  82.  The  young  have  this 
deep  orange  red  color  until  they 
leave  the  parent. 

The  long-armed  starfishes,  Fig. 
83,  often  come  up  above  low  water  mark,  under  stones  and 
in  clusters  of  mussels,  and  are  oftener  found  in  the  roots  of 
large  seaweeds  thrown  up  on  the  shore.  Instead  of  creep- 
ing by  suckers  they  walk  with  their  arms  or  squirm  into 
cracks  like  a  bunch  of  worms.  These  have  free  swimming 


Fig.  74.  —  A  branch  of  Bugula 
turftta,  showing  the  birds' 
heads. 


SEA-EGG. 


transparent  larvae  of  complicated  shape  similar  to  those  of 
the  common  starfish. 

The  common  sea-egg,  Echinus,  Fig.  84,  is  common  along 


Fig.  75-  —  Young  Polyzoa,  Menbranipora  pilosa.     [ From  Barrois. ] 

rocky  shores  and  small  specimens  may  be  found  under  stones 
between  tides,  but  the  large  full  grown  ones  live  where  they 
are  always  covered  with  water  and  are  shel- 
tered in  cracks  or  among  small  stones.    They 
may  often  be  found  by  feeling  under  stones 
just   below   low  water.     The   resemblance  of 
one  of  these   sea-eggs  to   a   starfish   is   not 
very  evident  at  first  sight  of  a  specimen  out 
of  water ;  but  let  one  be  put  in  a  dish  with 
water  enough  to  cover  it,   and  it  will  soon 
Fig   76  —Swim-     straighten  up  its  spines  and  put  out  five  double 
?o\yzo£u}iAt»-     rows  of  suckers,  which   extend    around   the 

branipora    pi- 

losa,  seen  edge-     body  from  one  pole  to  the  other  instead  of 

wise.      [From 

Barrois.]  being  on  one  side  only  as  in  the  starfish.    The 

sea-egg  may  be  compared  to  a  thick  starfish  with  the  back  very 


64  LIFE  ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

small  and  the  arms  turned  together  upward.  The  suckers  can 
be  run  out  a  long  distance  and  the  sea-egg  walks  quite  rapidly 
with  them.  The  greater  part  of  the  body  is  covered  with 
spines  which  are  movable  and  appear  to  help  the  animal 
along  and  to  keep  it  clear  of  stones  and  other  objects  among 
which  it  crawls.  Each  spine  rests  on  a  little  knob  and  is 
moved  by  muscles  radiating  around  its  base.  Among  the 
spines  are  the  "pedicellariae,"  Fig.  85,  of  several  kinds  and 
raised  on  long  stems  so  as  to  reach  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
spines.  They  are  three-jawed  and,  if  any  part  of  the  animal 


Fig.  77.  —  Young  Polyzoa,  Flustrella  hispida.     [From  Barrois.] 

is  touched,  turn  toward  it  and  open  their  jaws.  Their  office 
seems  to  be  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  shell  clean  by  picking 
up  bits  of  dirt  and  passing  them  along  where  they  will  wash 
off.  The  pedicellariae  can  be  seen  in  operation  with  a  low 
magnifying  power,  but  to  understand  their  shape  and  structure 
it  is  necessary  to  pull  some  off  and  put  them  under  a  higher 
magnifying  power.  The  sea-egg  lives  on  plants  which  it 
gnaws  with  fine  sharp  teeth,  with  which  its  mouth  is  provided, 
and  which  are  supported  by  a  complicated  framework  inside 
the  body.  In  confinement  the  sea-eggs  need  frequent  changes 


SEA-EGG.  65 

of  water  and  are  constantly  discharging  balls  of  excrement 
which  help  to  make  it  dirty. 

The  porous  plate  which  covers  the  entrance  to  the  water 
system  is  found  also  in  the  sea-egg  near  the  middle  of  the 
upper  side,  Fig.  86.  The  fine  little  holes  in  a  circle  around 
this  end  are  the  openings  through  which  the  eggs  are  dis- 


charged.  When  the  sea-eggs  die  they  soon  decay,  and  the 
spines  drop  off  leaving  a  thin  shell  covered  with  little  knobs, 
where  the  spines  were,  and  rows  of  holes  where  the  suckers 
came  out.  In  this  condition  they  are  washed  up  on  the 
beaches-  and  are  better  known  among  collectors  of  curious 
things  than  in  their  natural  condition. 
5 


66 


LIFE  ON  THE  SEASHORE. 


Another  animal  allied  to  the  sea-egg  is  the  "sand  dollar," 

Fig.  87,  a  flattened-out  echinus,  with  a  fur  of  little  spines 

and  very  small  suckers  among  them.  It  lives  on  sandy  bot- 
toms seldom  above  low  water  mark  and 
partly  buried  in  the  sand.  When  living, 
its  color  is  dark  purple  which  soon  fades 
to  green  and  gray  when  it  is  taken  out 
of  the  water.  "  The  fishermen  on  the  coast 
of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  sometimes 
prepare  an  indelible  marking  ink  from 
these  sand  dollars  by  rubbing  off  the  spines 
and  skin,  and  after  pulverizing  making  the 
mass  into  a  thin  paste  with  water."* 

Related  to  these  animals  are  the  soft- 
bodied    "  Holothurians "   one    species   of 

which,  Leptosynapta   Girardii,  Fig.  88,  lives  buried  in  sand 

like  a  worm,  for  which  it  might  easily  be 

mistaken.    It  is  white  and  translucent  with 

fine  opaque  lines  that  show  the  division 

into  five  segments  as  in  the  sea- egg.     It 

is  about  six  inches  long  and  a  quarter  to 

half  of  an   inch   in  diameter  and  keeps 

buried  entirely  in  the  sand  in  holes  leading 

down  from  the  surface.    At  the  upper  end 

is  the  mouth  surrounded  by  ten  soft  tenta-    r. 

*  •rig-    °o-  —  Young    btar- 

cles.     The  intestine  is  usually  full  of  sand 

from  which  the  animal  appears  to  extract  its  food.     The  skin 

is  full  of  little  hard  plates  with  anchor-shaped  hooks  attached, 


Fig.  79. — A  spine  of 
Starfish  with  a  clus- 
ter of  pedicellariae 
around  the  base. 


*  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Sound. 


SEA-ANEMONE. 


67 


Fig.  89,  which  make  it  stick  to  everything  which  touches 
it.  Some  other  of  these  holothurians  will  be  mentioned 
farther  on  among  animals  of  deeper  water,  some  of  which 
have  five  rows  of  suckers  and  may  be  compared  to  an 
elongated  sea-egg,  while 
others  creep  on  one  side 
and  look  more  like  snails 
than  they  do  like  radiate 
animals. 

The  sea- anemones  have 
long  been  favorite  seaside 
pets  both  on  account  of 
the  ease  with  which  they 
can  be  kept  in  confinement 
and  their  supposed  plant- 
like  form  and  habits  so  dif- 
ferent from  all  the  more  fa- 
miliar animals.  The  com- 
mon fringed  sea-anemone, 
Fig.  90,  lives  among  rocks 
near  low  water  mark  and 
still  more  abundantly  on 
the  piles  of  wharves  and 
bridges,  even  where  these  are  washed  by  a  considerable 
quantity  of  brackish  and  dirty  water  at  every  tide.  They 
vary  much  in  size  and  color,  but  when  contracted  the  greater 
part  of  them  resemble  in  both  these  respects  a  baked  apple. 
Other  individuals  are  white,  yellow,  or  spotted.  The  ten- 
tacles and  the  parts  around  the  mouth  which  show  when  the 
animal  expands  are  lighter,  being  flesh  colored  or  various 


Fig.  81.— Young  Starfish,  showing  at  the 
upper  end  the  fine  lobes,  which  become 
the  arms  of  the  adult. 


68 


LIFE   ON   THE    SEASHORE. 


Fig.  82 — Young 
Cribrella. 


shades  of  gray.      The  outer   tentacles  are  small   and  very 

numerous,  scattered  over  a  disk  which  is  scalloped  and 
folded  at  the  edge.  Inside  and  around  the 
mouth  are  a  few  larger  and  longer  tentacles 
which,  when  expanded,  stand  up  straight  from 
the  disk.  The  edge  of  the  mouth  is  wrinkled 
and  has  two  smooth  grooves  leading  into  it  at 
opposite  sides.  The  sea-anemone  lives  on 
small  animals  of  various  kinds  that  come 
against  its  tentacles  as  it  stands  spread  out 
in  the  water.  They  adhere  to  the  tentacles 

and  are  passed  along  into  the  mouth.     The  sea-anemone 

sometimes  runs  out  white 

threads  from  its  mouth  or 

from  holes  around  its  sides. 

These    threads    are    filled 

with  "nettle  cells"  which 

can  be  conveniently  seen 

by  pressing  part  of  one  of 

these  threads  between  two 

pieces  of  glass  under  the 

microscope.      The    nettle 

cells  are  large  and  long  and 

Fig.  83.  —  Starfish,  Ophiobholis  aculeata. 

each    contains    a    thread 

coiled  up  within  it  which  is  thrown  out  when  it  is  irritated ; 
such  cells  are  found  on  other  parts  of  the  body  and  are 
common  in  all  the  animals  of  this  class.  Fig.  91  is  a  section 
across  a  sea-anemone  to  show  how  its  body  is  divided  by 
partial  partitions. 

The  sea-anemones  though  usually  stationary  are  not  per- 


SEA-ANEMONE. 


..  —  Sea-egg,    Echinus,   side  view. 
[From  Tenney's  Zoology.] 


manently  attached,  but  can  crawl  about  slowly  by  the  mus- 
cular base  on  which  they  stand.  If  kept  in  an  aquarium  they 
soon  attach  themselves  and  will  creep  up  the  glass  where 
both  top  and  bottom  can 
be  conveniently  seen,  and 
in  small  transparent  indi- 
viduals a  considerable  part 
of  the  internal  organs.  This 
sea-anemone  is  very  easily 
kept  in  confinement  es-  Fig. 
pecially  in  winter  when  the 
aquarium  can  be  easily  kept  cool.  In  summer  the  water 
must  be  changed  or  strained  oftener  to  keep  it  cool  and 

clean,  and  the  larger  the 
amount  of  water  the  bet- 
ter.     In   keeping  these 
Fig.  85.— Pediceiiaria  of  Sea-egg.  and  all  other  water  ani- 

mals, it  is  better  to  use  small  ones  as  these  require  less  water 
and  show  almost  everything  that  the  larger  individuals  do.'  - 

On  the  southern  coast  of  New 
England  and  farther  south  the 
"white  armed  sea-anemone,  Sa- 
gartia  leucolena,  Fig.  92,  is  com- 
mon near  low  water  especially  on 
the  under  side  of  large  stones  some- 
times nearly  buried  in  gravel. 
This  is  more  elongated  and  more 
slender  than  the  last  and  has  a 
smaller,  simple  and  plain  disk, 
with  the  tentacles  much  longer  and  more  slender  and 


Fig.  86. — Centre  of  upper  side 
of  Sea-egg  with  spines  rubbed 
off.  [From  Tenney's  Zo- 
ology.] 


70  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

crowded  together  near  the  margin.  The  surface  of  the  body 
is  usually  pale  salmon  or  flesh  color  and  the  skin  is  trans- 
lucent so  as  to  show  the  internal  lamellae ;  the  tentacles  are 
paler  and  more  translucent  and  usually  whitish,  but  some- 
times pale  salmon.  The  tentacles  in  full  expansion  are  over 
an  inch  long." 

The  sea-anemones,  although  very  much  like  the  coral  ani- 
mals, make  no  coral  themselves ;   but  there  is  one  species 


Echinara  cli  mmjxzrma, 

Fig-  87.  Fig.  87  a.    Young  of  Echinus. 

found-on  the  southern  coast  of  New  England  which  makes 
coral  lumps  of  considerable  size.  "The  Astrangia  Dance, 
which  is  the  only  true  coral  yet  discovered  on  the  coast  of 
New  England,  is  occasionally  found  on  the  under  side  of 
overhanging  rocks,  or  in  pools  where  it  is  seldom  or  never 
left  dry.  The  coral  forms  incrusting  patches,  usually  two  or 
three  inches  across  and  less  than  half  an  inch  thick,  com- 
posed of  numerous  crowded  corallets  having  stellate  cells 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  living  animals, 


POLYPS. 


Fig.  93,  are  white,  and  in  expansion  rise  high  above  the  cells 
and  expand  a  circle  of  long,  slender,  minutely-warted  tenta- 
cles which  have  enlarged  tips.  These 
coral  polyps,  when  expanded,  resemble 
clusters  of  small,  white  sea-anemones, 
and  like  them  they  will  seize  their  prey 
with  their  tentacles  and  transfer  it  to 
their  mouths.  They  feed  readily  in  con- 
finement, upon  fragments  of  mollusca 
and  Crustacea."*  The  coral  formed  by 
this  polyp  resembles,  on  a  small  scale, 
that  formed  in  such  large  masses  in 
more  southern  waters.  After  the  ani- 
mals are  dead  and  their  softer  parts  Fig.  88.— Upper  end  of  a 

,  .  worm    like   Holothurian, 

decayed,   it  is   left    as   a   stony  lump      LeptosynaptaGirardu, 

with  the  tentacles  partly 

covered  with  little  rounded    pits  with      extended, 
radiating  partitions  extending  from  the  circumference  nearly 
to  the  centre.     Each  of  these  pits  is  the  place  where  one 
of  the  polyps  stood  and  has  been  secreted  by  it,  as  the  shell 

of  a  snail  or  the  bones  of  a 
quadruped  are  secreted,  the 
partitions  being  formed  in  radi- 
ating folds  such  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  base  of  a  sea-anemone 
attached  to  a  glass.  All  corals 
are  formed  in  some  such  way 
and  are  not  to  be  considered 

as  nests  built  by  "insects"  or  other  animals  in  which  to  hide 
themselves. 


Fig.  89.— Plates   and   hooks   from  the 
skin  of  Leptosynapta  Girardii. 


1  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Sound. 


72  LIFE    ON    THE    SEASHORE. 

Along  with  the  fringed  anemone  there  grow  great  bunches 
of  a  large  Tubularia,  Thammocnidia  spectabilis,  Fig.  94.  It 
has  a  long  transparent  stem  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  circle  of 
tentacles  that  spread  sometimes  over  an  inch  in  width.  In 
the  middle,  above  these,  rise  the  stomach  and  proboscis  with 
a  circle  of  smaller  tentacles  around  the  mouth ;  at  the  end 


Fig.  90. — Common  Sea-anemone,  Metridium  marginatum. 

and  between  the  proboscis  and  the  outer  tentacles  are 
bunches  of  round  objects  like  berries  which  are  the  ovaries, 
in  which  may  be  seen  young  polyps  of  various  stages  with 
their  arms  folded  together  as  they  become  ready  to  hatch. 
These  after  a  while  drop  off  as  little  eight-armed  polyps, 
which  float  about  for  a  short  time  and  then  become  at- 
tached by  the  under  side  and  grow  up  like  their  parents. 


POLYPS. 


73 


Besides  this  method  of  increase,  these  tubularias  also  branch, 
and  a  new  head  and  tentacles  develop  on  the  end  of  each 
of  the  branches.     When 
they  are    kept    in    con-  I. 

finement  the  heads  often 
drop  off  and  after  a  time 
new  ones  grow  on  the 
same  stems.  In  early 
summer,  before  the  hot- 
test weather,  it  is  easy  to 
keep  this  species  and  see 
the  young  fall  off  and 
attach  themselves  to  the 
dish.  Among  the  heads 


Fig.  91 .  —  Section  of  Sea-anemone  to  show  the 
radial  partitions  of  the  body. 


that  become  detached  from  these  tubularias  are  often  great 

numbers  of  young 
pycnogonidcE,  as  will 
be  described  here- 
after, which  live  there 
as  parasites. 

Cla  v  a  leptostyla, 
Fig.  95,  is  another 
hardy  polyp  that 
grows  near  or  even 
above  low  water.  It 
is  bright  red  and  often 
lives  on  dark  seaweed 


Fig.  w-Sagartia  leucolena.     [Verrill,] 

it  shows  itself  very  distinctly,  lying  down  and  partly  drying  at 
low  tide  but  reviving  when  the  water  covers  it.     The  tentacles 


74 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


are  arranged  irregularly  around  the  outer  end,  and  in  the 
breeding  season  the  ovaries  are  clustered  below  them  as  in 
the  figure.  Most  of  the  year,  however,  these  are  absent  and 
they  have  no  branches  except  the  tentacles. 

Coryne  mirabitts,  Fig.  96,  is  another  species  something 
like  this.  The  buds  below  the  tentacles,  however,  instead  of 
producing  young  directly  grow  into  jelly-fishes  like  d,  Fig.  97, 
which  become  half  an  inch  across  and  are  among  the  most 

common  jelly-fishes. 
They  are  very  hardy 
and  can  be  kept  for 
some  time  in  confine- 
ment if  the  water  is 
clean. 

Most  of  the  plant- 
like  objects  growing 
around  the  shore  are 
not  plants  but  Hy- 

Fig.  93.  —  Five  polyps  of  Astrangia  Dante.    Upper      droids,      Compound 
central  one  with  tentacles  fully  expanded. 

animals   allied  to 

those  just  described,  Fig.  98.  They  branch  off  originally 
from  one  individual  and  grow  into  clusters  of  different  shapes 
according  to  the  species.  They  look  so  much  like  plants 
that  almost  every  collection  of  seaweeds  includes  some  of 
them,  and  they  keep  very  well  pressed  on  paper  like  plants  ; 
but  the  whole  of  them,  stems  and  all,  belong  to  the  animals 
themselves  whose  mouths  and  tentacles  are  on  the  ends  of 
the  branches,  while  the  lower  parts  are  more  or  less  con- 
nected together  through  the  stem.  All  of  the  branches, 
however,  do  not  have  mouths  and  tentacles  on  the  ends, 


HYDROIDS. 


75 


but  instead  have  capsules  which  contain  little  buds  which 
develop  into  ciliated  young  that  are  discharged  and  swim 
for  a  short  time,  and  then  grow  up  into  new  branching 
colonies  like  their  parents ;  or  the  buds  develop  into  jelly- 
fishes  that  grow  up 
and  produce  eggs, 
which  in  turn  grow  in- 
to stationary  branch- 
ing hydroids,  Fig.  96. 
More  examples  of  this 
"alternate  genera- 
tion "  of  hydroids  and 
jelly-fishes  will  be 
given  in  the  chapter 
on  swimming  animals. 
The  general  shape  of 
the  clusters  of  hy- 
droids is  preserved 
well  enough  by  pres- 
sing them  on  paper 
after  the  manner  of 
plants;  but  the  soft 
parts  are  lost  alto- 
gether in  this  Way,  Fig.  95-  —  Clava.  leptostyla, 
J  enlarged.  [After  Agassiz.] 


is  best  to  use  alcohol  which  preserves  the 
polyps  so  that  they  can  be  examined  very  easily  though  con- 
tracted somewhat. 

There  are  several  sponges  which  grow  around  the  shore, 
some   even  above  low  water.      One  of  the  commonest  of 


76 


LIFE    ON    THE    SEASHORE. 


natural  size.     [Af- 
ter Agassiz.] 


these  is  Ascortis  fragilis,  a  little  white  species  that   grows 
under   stones   among   shells,  often  nearly  covered   up  with 

mud.     It  consists  of  a 

number  of  little  tubes 

about   an   inch    high, 

connected  together  by 

other  branching  tubes 

at  the  base  and  when 

Fig.  96. -Cluster  of     dean>  which  is  Seldom, 
Coryne  mirabilis,  ,          ,  .  111 

nearly  white  and  look- 
ing rough   under   the 

microscope    from    the    sharp    spicules 

which  fill  them.    To  see  these  spicules, 

„        .  Fig.  97. — Coryne  mirabilis, 

a    Small    piece    Should    be    torn    6ff    and        enlarged.    [After  Agassiz.] 

placed  under  the  microscope  and  a  little  potash  used  to  dis- 
solve the  rest  and 
leave  the  spicules 
clean.  In  sponges, 
there  are  little  cavi- 
ties lined  with  cili- 
ated cells,  that  by 
their  motions  keep 
water  passing  over 
them  and  take  Fig.  99._ ciliated  ceils  of  Ascortis 

~  fragilis. 

in    from   it   the 
Fig.  98.  — Cluster   sponge's  food.     These    cells  are  very  small. 

of      Sertularia 

AWa'sS']  tAfter   ^Ut  ^oose  ones  may  ke  seen  when   a   piece 
of  sponge  is  examined  fresh.     The    ciliated 
cells   (Fig.  99)   of  this   species   have   been   described  and 
figured  by  Clark. 


SPONGES. 


77 


A  larger  sponge,  Chalina  oculata,  Fig.  100,  with  a  fibrous 
framework,  is  often  found  just  below  low  water.  It  is  gener- 
ally attached  by  a  small  base  from  which  finger-shaped 
branches  spread  into  a  half  round  cluster.  This  is  more 


Fig.  100. — Chalina  oculata.  , 

like  the  washing  sponges,  but  its  fibres  are  too  brittle  for  it  to 
be  of  any  use. 

While  examining  animals  with  a  microscope,  infusoria  of 
various  kinds  will  often  be  met  with,  some  swimming  like  the 
young  of  higher  animals  and  others  attached  to  shells  and 


7 8  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

plants.     The  stems  of  hydroids  are  often  covered  with  corn- 


Fig.  ioi.  —  Vorticella  from  hydroid  steins 

pound  infusoria  like  Fig.  ioi,  mixed  in  with  the  heads  of  the 
hydroids  themselves,  so  that  to  the  naked 
eye  they  may  not  be  distinguished  apart. 
The  stems  of  these  animals  are  con- 
tractile and  if  one  is  touched  the  whole 
cluster  suddenly  draws  together  into  a 
ball.  When  they  are  expanded  a  ring  of 
cilia  is  seen  around  the  outer  end  that 
keeps  up  a  whirl  of  water  around  the 
point  where  food  enters.  These  currents 
of  water  can  be  seen  better  if  a  little 
indigo  or  carmine  is  put  in  the  water, 
and  particles  of  the  colored  powder  will 
soon  be  swallowed  and  can  be  seen  in- 
side the  infusoria.  The  cilia  do  not  form 
a  circle,  but  a  spiral  with  the  centre  near 
the  opening  where  the  food  is  taken  in.  Fis-  "".- 
There  are  other  similar  infusoria  that  live  singly  each  with 


INFUSORIA.  79 

a  separate  stem.  Another  kind  of  Protozoa,  one  of  the 
Acinetae,  often  found  on  hydroid  stems,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1 02.  Its  stem  is  not  contractile  and  the  cilia  on 
the  outer  end  are  straight  and  stiff.  The  lobe-like  promi- 
nences on  the  top  are  young,  which  bud  off  in  this  way  and 
finally  drop  and  become  attached  by  stems  of  their  own. 
Other  kinds  have  the  cilia  in  two  bunches  and  can  contract 
and  extend  them. 


SURFACE  ANIMALS, 


SURFACE   ANIMALS. 

WHILE  the  most  interesting  of  the  beach  animals  must  be 
searched  for  among  mud  and  stones,  there  lives  another  group 
that  are  always  afloat  in  clean  water  and  may  be  picked  up 
with  a  dip-net  or  skimmed  from  the  surface  as  the  boat  sails 
along.  A  few  of  these,  such  as  the  large  jelly-fishes,  can  not 
fail  to  be  seen  by  everybody  who  fishes  or  uses  a  boat,  but 
most  of  them  are  very  small  and  a  large  part  of  them  nearly 
transparent,  so  that  to  the  naked  eye,  looking  from  above, 
they  are  invisible.  The  number  of  animals  at  the  surface  is 
usually  greatest  at  night  and  in  suitable  weather,  especially 
on  calm  and  warm  nights,  when  they  show  their  presence  in  a 
peculiar  way,  by  the  phosphorescence  of  the  water  as  it  is 
called.  Sometimes  this  is  so  great  that  the  ripples  along  the 
6  81 


82  LIFE    ON    THE    SEASHORE. 

shore  are  enough  to  excite  it  and  appear  as  white  lines  on  the 
water,  and  at  such  times  the  boat  and  oars  are  surrounded  by 
white  light  and  drops  from  the  latter  look  like  sparks  of  fire. 
This  phosphorescence  often  occurs  on  decaying  fish ;  even 
on  fish  that  have  not  long  been  dead  the  slime  on  the  surface 
may  shine  in  the  night.  Nearly  all  the  small  surface  animals 
shine  in  the  same  way,  though  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  light 
to  individuals. 

The  best  method  of  obtaining  these  small  animals,  where 
they  are  numerous,  is  to  skim  the  surface  with  a  muslin  dip- 
net  ;  but  where  they  are  scattered,  as  is  usual  in  the  daytime, 
a  net  may  be  arranged  to  tow  after  a  boat,  as  in  the  picture,  or 
to  fasten  where  the  current  is  strong  and  let  the  water  run 
through  it.  The  net  should  be  taken  up  often  so  that  the 
animals  shall  not  be  crushed  against  the  cloth,  and  the  inside 
washed  off  in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  To  find  the  animals 
in  the  water,  it  should  be  placed  in  a  glass  vessel  and  a  strong 
light  thrown  into  it  from  the  sun  or  a  lamp,  so  that  the  trans- 
parent objects  may  be  seen.  A  vessel  with  a  black  bottom, 
or  a  glass  dish  standing  on  a  black  surface,  is  the  best  to 
show  such  objects  while  they  are  lighted  from  above  or  from 
one  side.  Most  swimming  animals  have  the  habit  of  collect- 
ing together  toward  the  light,  and  a  large  proportion  of  those 
in  the  vessel  will  be  thus  gathered  in  a  small  space  in  a  short 
time.  Other  less  active  species  collect  around  the  edge  of 
the  water  and  may  be  found  by  looking  over  this  line  with  a 
magnifying  glass.  Some  animals  settle  to  the  bottom  when 
caught,  but  after  a  time  swim  up  again ;  others  are  carried 
down  by  dirt  adhering  to  them  and  can  not  rise,  so  that  it  is 
well  to  pour  off  the  clear  water  and  dilute  the  sediment  with 


COPEPODS.  83 

a  fresh  supply  in  order  that  the  small  animals  mixed  with  it  can 
be  more  easily  picked  out.  For  this  work  a  pipette  or  medi- 
cine dropper  with  a  rubber  top  is  very  useful,  and  a  good 
supply  of  watch  crystals,  butter  plates  and  other  little  dishes, 
should  be  kept  on  hand  in  which  to  separate  them.  After 
picking  out  everything  visible,  the  water  should  be  left  stand- 
ing quietly  over  night  when  new  things  will  often  come  to  the 
sarface. 

The  first  thing  that  will  attract  attention  in  a  dish  of  surface 
water  is  the  great  number  of  minute  Crustacea  which  gather 


Fig.  103. — A  Copepod. 

toward  the  light.  Some  of  these  are  to  be  found  at  all  times 
of  the  year,  several  species  occurring  together  on  some  days, 
while  on  others  all  will  be  of  one  species.  It  is  useless  to  at- 
tempt to  describe  many  of  these  little  Crustacea,  for  even 
among  naturalists  few  of  them  are  known ;  but  one  or  two 
"will  be  enough  to  illustrate  the  group.  Fig.  103  shows  one 
of  these  Copepods.  One  pair  of  antennae  are  very  long  and 
sometimes  modified  into  grasping  organs  in  the  male.  The 
principal  swimming  organs  are  the  short  appendages  under 
the  tail.  They  appear  to  float  at  rest  without  effort  and  can 


84  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

then  only  be  distinguished  by  the  colored  spots  which  most 
of  them  have  in  the  head  and  antennae. 

When  they  do  move,  however,  their  motions  are  exceed- 
ingly quick  and  they  dart  here  and  there  like  a  flash  for  a 
few  moments  and  then  settle  quietly  again.  Some  of  them 
are  almost  always  carrying  their  eggs  in  a  bunch  or  two 
bunches  behind,  and  these  are  usually  more  brightly  colored 
than  the  animal  itself.  One  of  our  largest  species,  half  an 
inch  long,  carries  its  eggs  in  the  spring.  Its  body  is  brown 
with  a  transparent  spot  behind  the  head,  as  though  a  piece 
had  been  bitten  out,  and  the  eggs  are  very  bright  green  and 
carried  behind  the  body  attached  to  the  hairs  of  the  tail. 

One  of  these  copepods,  "a  species  of  Sxpphirina,  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  creatures  inhabiting  the  sea.  It  reflects 
the  most  gorgeous  colors,  blue,  red,  purple  and  green,  like 
fire  opal,  although  when  seen  in  some  positions,  by  trans- 
mitted light,  it  is  colorless  and  almost  transparent.  When 
seen  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sea  in  large  numbers,  the 
appearance  is  very  singular ;  for  each  one  as  it  turns  in  the 
right  position  reflects  a  bright  gleam  of  light  of  some  bril- 
liant color,  and  then  immediately  becomes  invisible,  and 
scintillations  come  from  different  directions  and  various  these 
depths,  many  of  them  being  much  farther  beneath  the  sur- 
face than  any  less  brilliant  object  could  be  seen."* 

The  young  of  the  common  crab,  Fig.  41,  are  found  all 
summer  long  among  these  copepods,  and  are  easily  rec- 
ognized by  their  comparatively  slow  motions  and  short 
jerks  up  and  down  along  the  edges  of  the  water.  With 

*  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Sound. 


CRUSTACEA.  85 

them  occur  also  the  young  of  hermit  crabs  and  shrimps  and 
occasionally  of  the  lobster,  Fig.  38. 

The  young  of  My  sis,  Fig.  104,  are  also  very  common, 
distinguished  by  their  large  eyes  extending  each  side  of  the 
head  to  twice  the  width  of  the  body. 

Some  of  the  adult  crabs  swim  at  the  surface  as  the  common 
"blue  crab,"  the  "lady  crab,"  Pfatyonichus,  and  the  males  of 
the  oyster  crab. 

A  curious  little  flat  crustacean,  Caligus  rapax,  is  parasitic 


Fig  104.  —  Mysts  stenolepis. 

on  fishes  but  swims  much  at  the  surface  and  is  often  caught 
in  the  net.  It  is  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long, 
dark  brown  in  color,  and  the  female  often  has  two  long  eg^ 
sacs  extending  behind  each  side  of  the  tail.  They  swim 
about  rapidly  in  the  dish  when  chased,  but  will  sometimes 
hold  so  tightly  to  the  sides  that  they  can  only  be  rubbed  off. 
Several  species  of  Isopods  and  Amphipods  are  common 
at  the  surface,  including  some  already  mentioned  as  occurring 
under  stones  on  the  beach,  as  Idotaa  irrorata,  page  29, 
which  is  often  taken  swimming  or  holding  to  floating  bits  of 


86  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

weed.  Idotcea  robusta,  a  slate  colored  species,  with  the  tail 
truncated,  is  usually  found  swimming  farther  out  from  the 
shore  and  probably  is  afloat  much  of  the  time.  A  curious 
amphipod,  Hyperia,  is  also  often  taken.  It  has  a  short  body 
and  a  head  flattened  in  front  with  short  antennae  and  im- 
mense eyes.  It  is  parasitic  on  jelly-fishes.  Among  these 
Crustacea  may  be  mentioned  the  cast-off  skins,  especially  of 
barnacles,  which  are  always  floating  and  easily  mistaken  for 
living  animals. 

On  the  bottom  of  the  dish  are  usually  some  small  roundish 
Crustacea  with  slender  forked  tails  with  which  they  push  them- 


Fig.  105.  —  Diastylis  quadrispinosus,  straightened  out. 

selves  awkwardly  about  among  the  dirt,  but  now  and  then  one 
will  turn  the  tail  close  over  the  back  so  as  to  look  like  a  seed 
and  swim  up  to  the  surface.  These  belong  to  a  group  called 
the  Cumacea  and  there  are  several  common  species,  Fig. 
105. 

The  large  sea  worms,  Nereis,  swim  at  the  surface  especially 
at  night  and  in  the  breeding  season.  The  males  are,  however, 
oftener  found  at  the  surface  than  the  other  sex.  The  adults 
of  the  smaller  species  of  Autolytus  swim  all  the  year  round. 
They  are  small  worms  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  long  with  long 
bristles  at  the  sides  and  long  curled  appendages  on  the  head. 


WORMS. 


The  males,  Fig.  106,  may  be  distinguished  by  six  or  more 
narrow  segments  just  behind  the  head,  and  the  greater  length 
and  size  of  the  appendages  on  the  other  segments  and  on  the 
head.  The  females  usually 
carry  a  bag  of  brightly  colored 
eggs  under  the  middle  of  the 
body,  of  different  colors  in  dif- 
ferent worms.  The  young  may 
be  seen  through  the  sac  as 
minute  triangular  worms  each 
with  two  red  eyes.  The  young 
do  not  swim  like  the  adults, 
but  live  in  tubes  among  plants 
and  hydroids  and  as  they  grow 
up  divide  into  several  worms 
fastened  head  to  tail.  The  in- 
dividuals that  drop  off  behind 
are  those  that  develop  into 
free  swimming  adult  males  and 
females. 

A  great  many  worms,  which 
burrow  in  the  mud  when  adult, 
swim  at  the  surface  when 
young,  and  great  numbers  of 
these  little  larvae,  Fig.  107, 
niciy  be  found  in  the  net  some  swimming  by  a  ring  of  cilia 
around  the  head,  and  others  a  little  farther  advanced  with  a 
few  bristles  and  paddles  often  longer  than  those  of  the 
adults. 

Some  worms  with  smooth  bodies  or  with  very  short  appen- 


Fig.  106. — Male  Autolytus. 


05  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

dages  manage  to  swim  at  times  by  wriggling  the  body  spirally, 
and  others  with  flatter  bodies  by  a  waving  up  and  down  motion 
like  a  leech. 

In  the  winter  and  spring  the  water  is  often  full  of  straight 
transparent  objects  that  usually  lie  still  and  stiff,  but  now  and 
then  dart  across  the  dish  and  come  to  rest  again.  This  is 
Sagitta  elegans,  a  transparent  worm.  The  middle  of  the 
body  is  smooth  with  two  pairs  of  stiff  fins  at  the  sides  and  a 
fin  at  the  tail  like  that  of  a  young  fish,  but  crossing  the  body 
horizontally  instead  of  up  and  down. 
The  head  has  a  pair  of  eyes  and 
three  pairs  of  bunches  of  bristles 
closed  together  near  the  mouth. 

Although  in  this  volume  the  fishes 
and  other  vertebrates  have  received 
but  little  attention,  we  can  not  omit 
to  mention  the  young  fishes  and  fish 
eggs  that  form  so  large  a  part  of  the 
Fig.  io7.-Young  worm.  surface  fauna,  especially  in  the  spring 
and  summer.  The  young  of  many 

fishes,  which  when  full  grown  feed  usually  at  the  bottom, 
swim  at  the  surface  until  an  inch  or  two  long,  when  they 
disappear  and  are  hard  to  find  until  large  enough  to 
bite  the  hook.  The  young  of  the  grubby,  Cottus,  of  the 
lump-fish,  Cyclopterus,  and  of  the  cod  and  hake  swim 
near  the  surface  in  this  way.  In  like  manner  the  eggs  or 
many  fishes  float  at  the  surface,  as  for  instance  those  of  the 
cod.  They  are  very  small  and  transparent  so  that  they  are 
invisible  except  in  the  most  favorable  light,  but  a  line  of 
them  will  often  collect  around  the  edge  of  the  water  and 


CUTTLE-FISHES. 


89 


they  can  then  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  or  better  with  a 
magnifying  glass  of  low  power.  The  development  in  these 
eggs  goes  on  rapidly  and  those  which  appear  perfectly  clear 
when  taken  will  some- 
times show  the  next  day 
a  very  fish-like  embryo. 
The  young  fishes  hatch 
in  -a  very  immature  state 
with  a  large  ball  of  yolk 
still  attached  under  them, 
and  may  often  be  taken 
at  the  surface  in  this 
condition,  so  transparent 
that  they  could  hardly  be 
found  except  by  their 
color  marks. 

Among  the  largest 
swimming  animals  are  the 
squids  or  cuttle-fishes, 
Fig.  1 08.  The  common 
species  are  well  known  to 
fishermen,  by  whom  they 
are  caught  for  bait,  and 
are  about  a  foot  in  length 
with  a  distinct  head  with 
large  and  bright  eyes,  in 
front  of  which  are  the  ten  strong  arms  covered  on  the 
inner  side  with  suckers.  The  mouth  is  provided  with  a 
strong  beak,  like  that  of  a  bird,  and  has  within  a  tongue 
covered  with  rasping  teeth  like  the  tongues  of  snails.  The 


Fig.    108.  —  Squid,  Loligo  palllda.      One- 
third  natural  size. 


90  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

food  is  held  by  the  arms  and  bitten  off  and  scraped  to 
pieces  before  being  swallowed.  The  method  of  swimming 
practised  by  the  squid  is  a  very  curious  one.  On  the  under 
side  is  a  large  chamber,  nearly  as  large  as  the  rest  of  the 
body,  which  contains  the  gills  and  the  water  which  surrounds 
them.  The  opening  to  this  chamber  is  by  a  slit  just  back  of 
the  head  which  can  be  closed  when  the  animal  wishes.  In 
the  middle  of  this  slit  is  a  flexible  tube  which  can  also  be 
closed.  When  the  animal  wishes  to  swim  it  closes  the  sides 
of  this  slit  and  forces  out  the  water  through  the  tube,  driving 
itself  backward  like  a  rocket.  The  direction  can  be  changed 
by  turning  the  tube  and  it  can  even  shoot  itself  forward  by 
pointing  the  tube  backward.  In  the  "  Invertebrate  Animals 
of  Vineyard  Sound/'  Smith  and  Harger  give  the  following 
account  of  the  habits  of  the  squid,  Ommastrepfas  illecebrosa, 
at  Provincetown,  Mass.,  which  they  watched  along  the  wharves, 
July  28,  engaged  in  capturing  and  devouring  the  young  mack- 
erel which  were  swimming  about  in  schools,  and  at  that  time 
were  four  or  five  inches  long.  "  In  attacking  the  mackerel 
they  would  suddenly  dart  backward  among  the  fish  with  the 
velocity  of  an  arrow,  and  as  suddenly  turn  obliquely  to  the 
right  or  left  and  seize  a  fish,  which  was  almost  instantly  killed 
by  a  bite  in  the  back  of  tbe  neck  with  the  sharp  beaks.  The 
bite  was  always  made  in  the  same  place,  cutting  out  a  trian- 
gular piece  of  flesh,  and  was  deep  enough  to  penetrate  to 
the  spinal  cord.  The  attacks  were  not  always  successful,  and 
were  sometimes  repeated  a  dozen  times  before  one  of  these 
active  and  wary  fishes  could  be  caught.  Sometimes  after 
making  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  one  of  the  squids 
would  suddenly  drop  to  the  bottom,  and,  resting  on  the  sand, 


CUTTLE-FISHES. 


91 


would  change  its  color  to  that  of  the  sand  so  as  to  be  almost 
invisible.  In  this  way  it  would  wait  until  the  fishes  came 
back,  and  when  they  were  swimming  close  to  or  over  the 
ambuscade,  the  squid,  by  a  sudden  dart,  would  be  pretty 
sure  to  secure  a  fish.  Ordinarily,  when  swimming  they  were 
thickly  spotted  with  red  and  brown,  but  when  darting  among 
the  mackerel  they  appear  translucent  and  pale.  The  mack- 
erel, however,  seemed  to  have  learned  that  the  shallow  water 
is  safest  for  them  and  would  hug  the  shore  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  in  pursuing  them  many  of  the  squids  became 
stranded  and  perished  by  hundreds,  for  when  they  once  touch 


Fig,  109.  —  Cluster  of  eggs  of  Loligo  Pealti. 

the  shore  they  begin  to  pump  water  from  their  siphons  with 
great  energy,  and  this  usually  forces  them  farther  and  farther 
up  the  beach." 

The  changes  of  color  which  they  undergo  to  make  them- 
selves more  like  their  surroundings  are  caused  by  changes  in 
the  size  of  their  color  spots,  which  are  constantly  taking 
place  and  can  be  best  observed  in  young  specimens. 

The  squids  have  one  very  peculiar  habit.  Inside  the  tube, 
through  which  the  water  is  discharged'  from  the  gill  chamber, 
is  a  bag  in  which  ink  is  secreted  and  when  the  squid  is  anx- 
ious to  escape,  it  discharges  some  of  it  into  the  water,  which 
is  instantly  blackened  so  that  the  squid  can  not  be  seen. 


92 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


The  eyes  of  squids  are  large  and  they  are  to  some  extent 
nocturnal  in  their  habits  and  will  collect  around  a  light  so 
that  they  can  be  driven  ashore  in  large  numbers. 

The  eggs  of  one  of  the  squids,  Lohgo  Pealii,  are  laid  in 
clusters  enclosed  in  jelly,  and  stuck  together  in  large  masses 
which  are  sometimes  washed  up  on  the  shore,  Fig.  109. 
The  body  of  the  squid  is  stiffened  by  an  elastic  piece  called 
the  pen,  Fig.  no,  which  is  in  the  skin  of  the 
back  and   is  of  various    shapes    in   different 
kinds  of  squids.      The  cuttle-fish  bone  used 
for  canary  birds  is  the  pen  of  a  short-bodied 
cuttle-fish. 

Farther  out  to  sea  there  are  larger  squids 
which  are  occasionally  found  in  the  stomachs 
of  fishes  or  whales,  or  thrown  ashore  dead 
or  disabled.  Within  the  last  few  years  several 
specimens  of  gigantic  squids  have  been  cast 
ashore  at  Newfoundland  from  which  measure- 
ments have  been  taken  and  parts  of  them 
preserved. 

One  of  the  most  complete  of  these  was 
taken  whole  to  New  York  and  is  preserved 
in  a  somewhat  damaged  condition  at  the  New 
York  Aquarium.  When  fresh  this  specimen 
measured  nine  and  one-half  feet  from  the  tip 
of  the  tail  to  the  base  of  the  arms  and  was 
seven  feet  in  circumference.  The  length  of  each  of  the 
long  tentacular  arms  was  thirty  feet  and  of  the  longest  of  the 
other  arms  eleven  feet.  The  largest  suckers  were  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  had  a  row  of  sharp  teeth  around  the  edge. 


Fig.  no. —  Pen  of 
a  Squid,  Loligo 
fallida. 


CUTTLE-FISHES.  93 

Fig.  1 1 1  is  copied  from  a  restored  drawing  of  this  specimen 


Fig.  in.  — A  large  squid,  Architeuthis  princeps,  one- 
fiftieth  natural  size.  [Restored  from  the  specimen  in 
New  York  by  Prof.  Verrill.] 

by  Prof.  Verrill,  lately  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Connecticut  Academy  of  Sciences. 


94 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


It  can  easily  be  imagined  that  such  creatures  as  these  could 
drown  a  man,  or  upset  a  boat,  and  they  have  furnished  ma- 
terial for  many  fabulous  accounts  of  sea-serpents  and  devil- 
fishes. These  large  squids  are  probably  more  numerous  than 

was  formerly  sup- 
posed, as  since  the 
recent  finding  of 
several  thrown  up  on 
the  shore,  numerous 
fishermen  have  re- 
ported seeing  them 
near  the  fishing  banks 
and  have,  in  some 
cases,  caught  and 
used  them  for  bait. 
Pieces  of  them  sound 
enough  to  be  recog- 
nized have  often  been 
seen  by  whalemen, 
thrown  up  from  the 
stomach  of  whales 
when  dying,  and  some 
of  the  largest  jaws  of 
squids  known  have 
been  taken  in  this  way. 
The  Pteropods,  Figs.  112  and  113,  are  another  group  of 
surface  animals  which  swim  by  two  wing-like  appendages  just 
behind  the  head.  Fig.  1 1 2  is  one  of  these,  Clione  papillo- 
nacea,  from  a  sketch  by  Prof.  Verrill.  The  mouth  is  at  the 
upper  end  surrounded  by  six  tentacles.  The  short  appen- 
dages between  the  wings  correspond  to  the  "foot"  of  snails, 


Fig.  112.  —  Clione  papillonace a. 


PTEROPODS.  95 

and  the  apparatus  at  the  side  belongs  to  the  reproductive 
organs.  This  species  is  not  common,  living  usually  at  some 
distance  from  land.  Other  Pteropods  have  shells,  that  of 
Styliola  vitrea  being  a  long  cone,  of  Spirialis  a  spiral,  and 
of  Cavolina  tridentata,  Fig.  113,  a  complicated  shape.  They 
all,  however,  swim  in  the.  same  way  by  a  pair  of  wings  which 
are  extended  out  of  the  shell. 

Many  snails  swim  at  the  surface  when  young  by  means  of 
cilia  on  two  wing-like  appendages  similar  to  those  of  Ptero- 
pods, but  which  disappear  as  the  snail  grows  up.  These 
temporary  appendages  are  nowhere 
more  distinct  than  in  the  young  of 
the  naked  mollusks  which  lose  not 
only  these  but  the  shell,  when  they 
become  adult.  This  is  best  ob- 
served in  the  young  of  Eolis  diversa. 
Over  the  lower  part  of  the  mouth  -. 

Fig.  113. — Pteropod,  Cavolina. 

of  the  shell  extends  the  foot,  covered 

with  cilia  and  carrying  the  flat  "operculum"  which,  when  the 
animal  is  entirely  contracted,  closes  the  shell.  Above  are 
the  lobes  which  have  around  their  edges  long  cilia  by  which 
the  young  snail  swims  through  the  water.  The  large  round 
objects  seen  inside  are  the  ears.  The  eyes  are  on  top  of  the 
head  behind  the  swimming  lobes.  They  swim  much  of  the 
time  when  first  hatched,  but  later  rest  oftener  on  the  bottom. 
They  can  be  easily  raised  from  the  eggs  and  kept  a  short 
time  living  in  confinement.  These  Eolis  young  are  almost 
transparent,  but  other  species  are  brightly  colored,  usually 
around  the  edges  of  the  swimming  lobes  just  inside  the  large 
cilia,  and  can  be  easily  seen  in  the  water  by  these  markings, 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


Fig.  114.     They  are  apt  to  settle  to  the  bottom  when  first 

caught  and  become 
mixed  up  with  the 
sediment,  but  rise  af- 
ter the  water  becomes 
quiet.  They  are  less 
likely  to  gather  around 
the  edges  of  the  dish 
than  most  surface  ani- 
mals and  swim  up  here 

Fig.  114.  —  Veliger  of  unknown  snail.  ,      .  ..  . 

and  there  all  over  it. 

Most  Ascidians  are  stationary  when  adult  but  swim  free 
for  a  short  time  after  hatching. 
Fig.  67  is  the  young  of  Molgula,  a 
common  ascidian  under  stones  and 
among  mussels.  After  swimming 
about  for  a  time,  the  larvae  attach 
themselves  to  the  bottom,  secrete 
a  thick  covering  over  them,  lose 
the  tail  and  transform  into  stationary 
animals. 

There  are,  however,  other  ascidi- 
ans  which  always  swim  or  float,  the 
Salpa,  Figs.  115  and  116.  They 
are  as  transparent  as  jelly-fishes, 
sometimes  slightly  reddish  with  blue 
around  the  edges  of  the  mantle  and 
about  an  inch  long.  They  swim  by 
forcing  out  water  from  the  posterior 
respiratory  opening.  The  white  lines 


•t 


Salpa  CabottlTtea. 


''  fonmng  Wlthm  u< 


YOUNG   STARFISHES. 


97 


running  around  the  body  are  muscles.  When  they  are 
mature  there  grows  near  the  posterior  end  a  chain  of 
little  Salpae  united  together  in  a  double  row  of  twenty 
or  thirty  pairs.  As  the  chain  grows  larger  it  is  dis- 
charged into  the  water  and  the  Salpae  grow  up  still  con- 
nected together  till  the  chain  is  a  foot  or  more  in  length. 
The  whole  moves  by  the  discharge  of  water  from  the  bran- 
chial openings  of  the  individuals 
composing  it.  Each  member  of 
these  chains  produces  a  single 
egg  which  develops  into  a  soli- 
tary individual  that  in  its  turn 
produces  another  chain  and  so 
on  alternately.  They  grow  rap- 
idly and  sometimes  the  water  is 
completely  filled  with  them. 

The  young  of  starfishes  and 
sea- eggs  have  already  been  men- 
tioned (pp.  6 1  and  63).  They 
swim  deep  during  the  day  .but 
rise  to  the  surface  in  the  even-  6W*a  cdbotttTte. 

ing  and  get  into  the  net  some-     Fis- II6-— $«&*> an  individual  from 

a  mature  chain;   c,  the  processes 

times  in  considerable  numbers.  by  which  they  are  ] 
They  can,  however,  be  raised  artificially  by  opening  a  mature 
female  and  discharging  the  eggs  into  water  and  then  opening 
a  male  into  the  same  water  and  after  stirring,  changing  the 
water  until  no  floating  bits  are  left  to  decay.  If  they  be 
kept  cool  and  the  water  changed  daily  the  development 
will  go  on  regularly  and  can  be  watched  from  day  to  day. 
As  soon  as  the  young  begin  to  swim,  the  water  can  be 
7 


98  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

changed  by  drawing  it  off  below  them  with  a  siphon 
and  they  can  be  raised  in  this  way  as  long  as  they  con- 
tinue to  float. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  little  round  spots  of  a 
very  deep  orange-red  color  are  found  at  the 
surface.  They  move  slowly  by  means  of  cilia 
all  over  them,  but  later  have  a  circle  of  five 
tentacles  at  one  end  and  two  at  the  other, 
Fig.  117.  These  are  the  young  of  a  large 
holothurian,  Lophofhuria,  which  will  be  de- 
scribed further  on.  Later  in  the  season  these 
red  larvae  settle  to  the  bottom  and  may  be 
Fig.  n7.  —  Young  found  among  stones  at  low  water  with  the 

Lophothurian. 

tentacles  branched  and  scales  on  one  side 
like  the  adult.  Along  with  these  round  red  larvse  occur 
the  similarly  colored  larvae  of  Cribrella,  Fig.  82. 

Perhaps  the  most  curious  animals  in  the  surface  fauna  are 
the  jelly-fishes ;  some  of  them  as  transparent  as  water,  and 
containing  so  large  a  proportion  of-  it  that,  when  dried,  there 
is  hardly  substance  enough  left  to  show  where  they  were- 
The  larger  species  are  familiar  objects  all  along  the  coast  in 
the  early  summer.  Beginning  in  February  and  March  as 
little  disks  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  across,  in  the 
course  of  the  season  they  reach  a  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more 
and  swim  out  several  miles  from  the  shore ;  and,  before 
autumn,  having  dropped  their  eggs,  they  become  opaque  and 
dilapidated  and  are  thrown  up  here  and  there  on  the  beach. 
The  most  interesting  part  of  their  history,  however,  is  that  in 
their  earliest  stages  most  of  them  pass  through  complicated 
changes  between  the  egg  and  adult. 


JELLY-FISHES.  99 

To  begin  with  one  of  the  best  known  let  us  trace  the 
growth  of  the  large  white  jelly-fish,  A urelia,  Fig.  118.  In 
this  jelly-fish  are  four  colored  masses  half-way  between  the 


Fig.  118.  —  Common  white  jelly-fish,  Aurelia  flavidula. 

mouth  and  the  rim  which  consist  of  eggs.  Late  in  the  sum- 
mer, if  the  animal  is  put  in  a  pan  of  water  some  of  these 
become  loose  and  slowly  creep  about  on  the  bottom. 

If  examined   closely,  they  are    seen  to  be    covered  with 
cilia  and   it   is   by  these  that  their  motions  are 
kept  up.     These  eggs,  or  larvae  as  they  may  now 
be  called,  are   dropped  loose  in  the  water  and 
those   which    happen   to    find    suitable    resting ' 
.places   become   attached  by  one  end  and  soon     Young  'of 

the    white 

open  a  mouth  at  the  other,  surrounded  by  ten-     Jeiiy-fi?h» 

*  -     A  it  r  eli  a  . 

tacles    something    like   a   minute    sea-anemone,     Firststase- 
Fig.    119.     They  live  in  this  way  all  winter,  and  some  of 
them  longer,  for  they  may  be  found  under  stones    in    the 


IOO  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

early  summer.  In  the  spring  these  polyps  elongate  and 
divide  transversely  into  a  pile  of  jelly-fishes,  Fig.  120, 
which  drop  off  one  by  one  and  swim  away,  Fig.  121.  At 
this  stage  they  do  not  look  much  like  the  adult,  but  have 
eight  long  arms  forked  at  the  ends  and  between  these  as 
many  rounded  lobes.  It  is  by  no  means  rare,  however,  to 
find  one  with  a  larger  number  of  branches,  twelve  being  a 
common  number.  As  they  grow  larger  the  lobes  increase 


Fig.  120.  Fig.  i2i.  —  Young  jelly-fishes  ready  to 

separate  and  swim  away. 

more  rapidly  than  the  arms,  so  that  the  outline  of  the  animal 
soon  becomes  a  circle  slightly  scolloped.  The  forked  arms 
carry  between  the  prongs  the  eyes  of  the  jelly-fish  and  these 
remain  in  the  adult.  As  the  lobes  grow,  they  develop  along 
the  outer  edge  a  fringe  of  five  tentacles ;  and  at  the  same 
time  four  large  tentacles  grow  around  the  mouth,  and  the 
ovaries  begin  as  four  clusters  of  tubes.  The  radiating 
branched  lines  running  from  centre  to  circumference  (see 
Fig.  ^ii  8)  are  tubes  which  branch  from  the  central  stomach 
and  run  to  a  circular  tube  around  the  outer  edge  of  the 
animal  and  are  the  only  circulating  vessels  that  it  has.  It 


JELLY-FISHES.  > J  > 


swims  from  the  first  by  contracting  itselt  around  the  edge 
suddenly  and  then  slowly  spreading  again  for  another  stroke  ; 
but  it  moves  slowly  and  does  not  appear  able  to  go  far  in  a 

definite  direction  but  to  drift  about  with  the  currents,  moving 

• 

only  enough  to  circulate  the  water  around  it  and  to  change 
the  depth  at  which  it  floats. 

The  red  jelly-fish,  Cyanea  arctica,  develops  in  much  the 
same  way,  but  it  grows  much 
larger  and  floats  in  deeper 
water.  The  tentacles  which 
hang  from  the  edge  are  longer 
and  much  more  numerous, 
trailing  out  behind  sometimes 
for  ten  feet  from  the  disk. 
These  tentacles  have  on  them 
very  strong  nettle  cells,  and 
persons  bathing  are  often  stung 
by  them  so  that  their  skin  feels 
as  if  burnt.  The  white  jelly- 
fish will  sting  the  skins  of  some 
persons,  even  the  hands,  in 
the  same  way,  but  is  harmless 
to  most  persons. 

In  spite  of  their  stings,  these 
jelly-fishes  furnish  shelter  for 
§ome  other  swimming  animals.  Certain  little  fishes  hide 
under  them  and  swim  in  and  out  at  pleasure,  though  occa- 
sionally one  gets  caught  and  swallowed. 

An   amphipod   crustacean,  Hyperia,  lives    on   them   and 
there  is  a  species  of  sea-anemone,  Peachia  parasitica,  Fi 


Fig.  122. — Peachia  parasitica. 


ON   THE    SEASHORE. 


122,  that  lives  in  the  pockets  around  the  mouth  and  should 
be  looked  for  whenever  one  of  these  jelly-fishes  is  captured. 
It  is  impossible  to  preserve  these  large  jelly-fishes  satisfacto- 
rily, but  small  ones  under  an  inch  in  diameter  can  be  kept 
very  well  in  alcohol  which  should  be  used  at  first  weak  and 
gradually  strengthened,  so  that  the  animal  will  contract  with- 
out becoming  distorted.  As  is  usual,  however,  in  such  work, 


Fig.  123.  —  Obelia. 

several  specimens  will  be  spoiled  for  every  good  one. 

The  development  of  other  jelly-fishes  goes  on  in  a  similar 
complicated  way.  In  the  water  from  the  surface  net,  there 
are  almost  always  some  little  flat,  and  very  active  jelly-fishes, 
Obelia,  Fig.  123.  They  are  usually  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  are  very  transparent  so  that  they  are 
not  easily  seen  until  they  move.  Instead  of  the  branching 
radiating  tubes  of  the  large  jelly-fishes,  they  have  four  simple 


JELLY-FISHES. 


103 


ones  connecting  the  stomach  with  a  circular  tube  around 
the  edge.  The  stomach  hangs  down  in  the  centre  and  has 
a  four-lobed  mouth.  The  outer  edge  of  the  animal  has  a 
fringe  of  tentacles  spreading  out  nearly  flat,  and  at  the  bases 
of  some  of  these  are  eyes.  The  four  round  bodies  hanging 
from  the  four  radiating  tubes  are  the  ovaries  usually  filled  with 
eggs  in  various  stages  of  development.  These  eggs  grow  up 
into  branching  hydroids,  Fig.  124,  with  a 
mouth  and  tentacles  on  the  end  of  each 
branch,  and  form  a  part  of  the  feathery 
growths  so  common  just  below  low  water 
mark.  All  the  branches,  however,  do  hot 
produce  mouths  and  tentacles ;  but  some  o^ 
them  form  long  capsules  filled  with  little 
round  bodies  that  gradually  grow  into  jelly- 
fishes,  and  are  discharged  into  the  water 
where  they  grow  up  and  lay  the  eggs  for 
another  generation. 

Another  method  of  growth  is  that  of  Coryne 
mirabilis,  Fig.  125,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
common  jelly-fishes.  It  has  the  same  four 
radiating  tubes  as  those  just  described,  but 
only  four  tentacles,  one  at  the  end  of  each  tube  with  an  eye 
at  the  base  of  each  tentacle.  The  stomach  is  very  long,  ex- 
tending out  of  the  bell,  and  small  Crustacea  may  often  be 
seen  in  it  in  process  of  digestion.  This  species  swims  more 
strongly  than  those  with  flat  disks.  The  eggs  form  around 
the  stomach  and  after  they  are  laid  grow  up  into  stationary 
animals  (see  Figs.  97  and  98),  with  a  mouth  at  the  tip  and 
tentacles  along  the  sides  for  some  distance  below  it.  Among 


Fig.  124. — Obeh'a 
coin  m  issrt  rail's. 
One  of  the  upper 
branches  has  the 
tentacles  fully 
expanded.  The 
lower  branch  is 
filled  with  buds 
which  grow  into 
jelly-fishes. 


104 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


these  tentacles,  buds  grow  out  after  a  time  which  take  the 
shape  of  little  jelly-fishes  fastened  by  the  top  (see  Fig.  97), 
and  these  finally  drop  off  and  swim  away. 

One  of  the  commonest  jelly-fishes  in  early  spring  is  the 


Fig.  125.—  Coryne  wzV<zJ/7«,with  the  tentacles  extended  natural  size. 
[From  Tenney's  Zoology.] 

Tiaropsis  diademata,  Fig.  126.     It  is  very  transparent  and 

grows  to  be  about  the  size  of  the  figure.  The  proboscis  is 
dark  colored  and  scol- 
loped and  folded  at 
the  edges.  The  eggs 
are  also  dark  and  de- 
velop on  the  four  radi- 
ating tubes.  The 

young  of  this  species  are  more  deeply 

bell-shaped  than  the  adult,     They  are 

very  abundant  in  the  winter  and  may 

be  mistaken  for  another  species. 

In  the  late  autumn  a  similar  species, 

Oceania  langutda,  becomes  very  abun- 

j  -r     •  ,    Fig    127.  —  Tima  formosa. 

dant.     It  is  even  more  transparent  and 

has  a  natter  disk  and  fewer  tentacles.     It  is  often  found  with 

young  fishes  in  the  stomach. 


Fig.  126.  —  Tiaropsis 
diademata. 


JELLY-FISHES. 


But  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  jelly-fish  of  this  coast  is 
Timaformosa,  Fig.  127.  It  grows  to  be  two  or  three  inches 
across  and  is  trans- 
parent throughout, 
except  the  four 
folded  ovaries  which 
run  along  inside  the 
bell  from  the  edge 


u 

Fig. 

codon  proltfer, 
an  unsymmetrical 
j  e  1 1  y  -  fi  s  h  with 
buds  at  the  base 
of  the  large  tenta- 
cl  es .  [From 
Agassiz.] 

to  the  mouth. 

Besides  the  com- 
plicated methods  of 
growth  already  de- 

•i      j  r  ,1  Fig.  129. — Compound  jelly-fish,  Nanotnia  cara. 

scribed,  some  of  the 

jelly-fishes  haye  the  habit  of  budding,  forming  clusters  of 
individuals  which,  as  they  mature,  break  off  and  swim  away, 
Lizzia  grata  produces  buds  along  the  sides  of  the  stomach 
which  grow  into  perfect  jelly-fishes  almost  as  large  as  the 
parent  before  dropping  off. 

Hybocodon,  Fig.  128,  is  one-sided  with  tentacles  on  only 


io6 


LIFE    ON    THE    SEASHORE. 


one  side.  The  buds  grow  around  the  bases  of  these  tentacles 
and  form  bunches  of  young,  some  of  which  remain  attached 
until  they  are  as  large  as  the  parent. 

There  are  some  compound  jelly-fishes  that  form  clusters  of 

many  individuals  of  different 
kinds,  some  catching  the  food 
and  eating  it  for  the  whole 
colony,  others  moving  the 
whole  through  the  water  and 
others  still  producing  the  eggs. 
One  of  these,  Nanomia  cara, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  129.  Another 
famous  compound  jelly-fish  is 
the  "  Portuguese  Man-of-war," 
Physalia,  Fig.  130,  which  is 
occasionally  found  along  the 
southern  coast  of  New  England, 
but  is  more  common  farther 
south. 

The  animal  consists  of  a 
large  bladder-like  float,  under 
which  hang  clusters  of  individ- 
uals of  various  kinds  which* 
carry  the  tentacles  and  diges- 
tive and  reproductive  organs. 
In  life,  the  float  is  brightly 

Fig.   130. — Portuguese   Man-of-war,  ,  ,         .  ,  j  ill 

Physalia  arethusa,  a  compound  jelly-       Colored     With      red      and     blUC. 
fish.     [From  Tenney's  Zoology.] 

The  tentacles  have  the  same 
stinging  property  as  those  of  the  common  jelly-fishes. 

There  is  another  group  of  jelly-fishes,  the  Ctenophorce,  that 


JELLY-FISHES. 


107 


develop  in  a  more  simple  way  than  the  Hydroids  and  swim 
during  their  whole  lives.  They  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
eight  rows  of  paddles  running  along  their  sides,  which  are 


Fig.  131.  —  Pleurobrachia.  rhododactyla.     [  From  Tenney's  Zoology.] 


in  constant  motion  and  reflect  rainbow  colors  as  the  animal 
turns  in  the  water.  One  of  the  commonest  of  these  is  Pleu- 
robrachia, Fig.  131.  It  is  nearly  spherical  and  the  rows  of 


Fig.  1^2. — Bolfna  alnta. 
\  From  Agassiz.] 


r.  133.  —  Idyfa  roseola, 
reduce J.     [  From  Agassiz.  J 


paddles  extend  nearly  around  it.  There  are  also  two  tenta- 
cles which  can  be  contracted  almost  out  of  sight,  but  may 
be  extended  to  several  times  the  diameter  of  the  body  and 
spread  out  feather-like  branches  along  their  whole  length- 


io8 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


Bolina  alata,  Fig.  132,  is  another  species.  It  is  differently 
shaped,  having  four  large  lobes  around  the  mouth  that  make 
it  appear  wider  at  one  end  than  the  other.  It  often  gets  into 
the  surface  net  but  seldom  comes  out  in  good  condition  as.it 
easily  sticks  to  the  cloth.  The  best  way  to  procure  these  jelly- 
fishes  is  to  watch  for  them  and  draw  them  near  the  surface 
with  a  net  and  then  dip  them  up  without  taking  them  out  of 
the  water.  They  float  at  various  distances  below  the  surface, 
but  can  be  seen  against  the  dark  water  at  a  considerable 
depth.  There  is  one  species,  Idyia  roseola,  Fig.  133,  which 
is  of  a  bright  pink  color.  It  is  barrel-shaped  and  has  no 
tentacles  and  the  whole  lower  end  of  the  body  opens  into  the 
stomach. 


BOTTOM  ANIMALS, 


\ 


BOTTOM   ANIMALS. 

• 

To  the  inland  student  nothing  is  so  interesting  as  dredging 
for  the  animals  that  live  beyond  the  lowest  tides,  out  of  reach 
of  ordinary  fishing  and  digging.  Here  he  works  upon  a 
ground,  only  a  small  part  of  which  has  ever  been  explored  and 
where  he  is  sure  to  find  something  that  he  has  never  seen  be- 
fore. Aside  from  its  scientific  interest,  dredging  is  a  far  more 
attractive  employment  than  fishing  for  men  who  like  active  and 
out-door  exercise  with  something  to  show  for  it  afterward- 
The  instrument  most  generally  useful  is  the  rectangular  dredge, 
Fig.  134,  with  two  scrapers,  so  that  it  will  work  whichever 
side  falls  on  the  bottom. 

The  frame  of  such  a  dredge  can  be  made  by  any  black- 
smith. The  pieces  at  the  sides  are  sometimes  riveted  into 

(109) 


110  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

the  scrapers,  but  are  better  welded  on  or  bent  from  the  same 
piece.  The  scrapers  should  not  flare  much.  If  they  are  an 
inch  farther  apart  at  the  edge  than  at  the  back,  they  will 
scrape  the  bottom  well  enough  and  are  not  so  likely  to  catch 
in  rocks  or  to  fill  the  bag  with  mud  as  if  they  spread  more. 
For  use  by  one  person,  or  with  a  small  row  boat,  a  light  dredge 
made  of  hoop  iron  may  be  used ;  but  for  most  purposes  a 
heavier  one  with  scrapers  half  an  inch  thick  and  the  sides 
an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  like  that  in  the  figure,  is  none 
too  stout  for  strength  or  weight.  A  row  of  holes  should  be 


Fig.  134. — Dredge:  a,  iron  frame:  b,  net:  <-,  canvas  cover:  d,  rope  fastened 
to  one  of  the  handles;  e,  small  rope  tied  to  the  other  handle. 

made  at  the  back  of  each  scraper  for  attaching  the  net  by 
twine  or,  better,  copper  wire.  It  should  also  be  tied  to  the 
sides  of  the  frame  between  the  attachments  of  the  handles. 
Dredge  nets  suitable  for  frames,  eighteen  by  six  inches,  or  a 
few  inches  larger  or  smaller,  are  kept  on  hand  by  the  Amer- 
ican Net  and  Twine  Company,  Boston,  and  will  be  tarred  or 
tanned  if  desired  to  protect  them  from  decay  or  mildew. 
To  prevent  the  net  from  tearing  or  rubbing  on  the  bottom 
when  full,  it  should  have  a  cover  of  canvas  put  around  it 
open  at  the  bottom  and  fastened  to  the  dredge  frame  at  the 
forward  edge.  Leather  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose, 


DREDGE   NETS.  Ill 

but  it  is  more  expensive  and  less  easy  to  handle.  It  is  a 
good  plan  when  going  on  a  dredging  trip  to  carry  an  extra 
net  and  twine,  needles  and  canvas  for  mending,  so  that 
if  anything  should  become  torn,  the  time  need  not  be 
lost  for  want  of  a  dredge.  The  way  tp  attach  the  rope  is 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  end  is  tied  to  one  of  the  handles, 
and  to  the  other  handle  is  tied  a  small  line  which  is  fastened 
to  the  dredge  rope  farther  forward.  In  case  the  dredge  is 


Fig.  135.  —  Trawl:  a,  beam  which  keeps  the  mouth  of  the  net  open:  b,  runners: 
c,  lead  line  that  dras;s  along  the  bottom:  (f,  net  tied  up  at  the  bottom;  e, 
pockets  to  prevent  fishes  from  getting  out. 

caught  among  rocks,  as  often  happens,  the  small  line  breaks 
and  it  comes  up  sidewise  by  the  opposite  handle.  A  weight 
equal  to  that  of  the  dredge,  or  heavier,  should  be  attached 
to  the  rope  five  or  six  feet  in  front  of  it,  to  keep  the  mouth 
turned  down  far  enough  to  scrape  the  bottom.  A  dredge  of 
this  kind  can  be  used  anywhere.  It  is  always  safe  before 
using  other  apparatus  to  take  a  haul 'with  the  dredge  and  see 
what  there  is  on  the  bottom.  Persons  experienced  in  sound- 
ing can  tell  very  nearly  what  the  bottom  is  by  the  feeling  of 


112 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


the  line  as  the  lead  strikes,  and  a  small  sample  of  the  bottom 
can  sometimes  be  brought  up  by  some  tallow  put  in  the  hol- 
low at  the  bottom 
of  the  lead.  With 
a  boat  large  enough 
and  a  smooth  bot- 
tom, a  "trawl"  may 
be  used,  Fig.  135. 
b  This  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  trawls 
of  cod  -  fishermen, 
but  is  a  large  net 
with  the  mouth  sup- 
ported by  a  frame 
resting  on  two  iron 
runners.  The  edge 
of  the  mouth  which 
drags  on  the  bottom 
is  weighted  with  lead 
enough  to  keep  it 
down  without  dig- 
ging into  the  mud. 

The  frame  is  some- 
times so  made  that 
the  net  is  only  at- 

Fig.  136.— Tangier,  chains  to  which  are  attached  bun-   tached  at    the    Sides, 
dies  of  hemp;    a,  iron  bar  to  which  the  chains  are 

fastened;    b,  iron  rings  to  keep  the  bar  a  off  the    and  both  edOfCS  have 
bottom.  • 

weighted    ropes    so 

that  it  will  work  whichever  side  lies  on  the   bottom.     The 
trawl  may  be  made  of  any  size  that  the  boat  and  crew  can 


DREDGE   NETS. 


manage.  It  does  not  scrape  up  much  of  the  bottom  like  the 
dredge,  but  catches  the 
shrimps,  fishes  and  other 
lively  animals  that  usually 
escape  the  dredge,  and  also 
picks  up  sponges,  echino- 
derms  and  loose  stones  that 
may  lie  in  its  way,  often 
an  inconvenient  weight  of 
the  latter.  On  rocky  or 
rough  bottoms  it  cannot  be 
used  without  danger  of  tear- 
ing and  losing  its  contents. 
The  net  should  be  made 


Fig.  137.  —  Diagram  of  boat  dredging. 


with  an  open  bottom  that 
can  be  tied  up  with  a  string 
and  opened  again  when  it  is  hauled  up  for  letting  out  the 


Fig.  138,  — Sieve  hung  over  a  boat's  side. 

contents.     There  is  another  dredging  instrument  called  a 
"  tangle  "  which  can  be  used  on  any  kind  of  bottom,  Fig.  136. 
It  consists  of  bunches  of  twine  or  untwisted  rope  fastened 
8 


114  LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

to  chains  so  that  they  can  be  dragged  over  the  bottom. 
Starfishes,  sea-eggs,  shrimps  and  many  other  animals  stick  to 
the  hemp  and  are  drawn  up  with  it.  So  tightly  do  they  hold 
that  it  is  difficult  to  detach  them  after  the  tangle  is  drawn  into 
the  boat.  Sometimes  it  will  be  so  full  of  Caprellas  (see  Fig. 
47,  p.  46)  that  the  color  of  the  bunches  of  hemp  cannot  be 


Fig.  139.  —  Yoldia  limatula, 

seen  through  them  and  sometimes  sea-eggs  will  cover  it  in 

the  same  way.    These  are  the  most  useful  pieces  of  apparatus 

for   dredging,    but   there    are   others  for  particular  kinds  of 

bottom.     For  soft  and  smooth  mud  a  dredge  has  been  made 

with  flat  thin  scrapers  and  a  frame  behind  to  keep  them  level, 

and  the  bag  extended  so  that  it  will  slip  along  easily  without 

digging  up  mud  and  catch 

the  things  lying  on  the  sur- 

face.     Another  dredge  has 

been    made   to   catch    the 

worms  which  are  buried  in     Fig.  i40.-,4«**//«  t*u*r,  with  foot  and 

tubes  extended.     Natural  size. 

the  mud.    This  has  a  sharp 

toothed  rake  in  front  of  the  bag  which  stirs  up  the  mud  and 

lets  it  wash  into  it. 

Dredging  from  a  row-boat  is  a  very  simple  operation ;  it  is 
only  necessary  to  put  the  dredge  over,  pay  out  about  twice  as 


DREDGE   NETS. 


"'5 


much  rope  as  will  reach  to  the  bottom,  make  it  fast  to  the 
stern  and  row  away  slowly. 

Dredging  from  a  sail-boat  is  a  more  difficult  matter  and 
needs  some  person  accustomed  to  the  management  of  boats 
to  do  it  properly.  If  the  current  is  strong  the  dredge  may  be 
fastened  to  the  bows  and  the  boat  allowed  to  drift  slowly 


Fig.  141.  —  Cypri 


as  though  she  were  dragging  an  anchor ;  or,  if  the  current  is 
not  strong  enough  to  move  the  dredge,  a  line  may  be  put  out 
from  the  stern  and  fastened  to  the  dredge  rope  so  that  the 
boat  can  be  pulled  round  with  its  side  to  the  current.  If  the 
currents  are  not  strong  enough  to  interfere  it  is  better  to  tow 
the  dredge  behind  the  boat  as  slowly  as  the  wind  will  carry 


n6 


LIFE    ON   THE    SEASHORE. 


her.  Supposing  the  wind  to  blow  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  Fig.  137,  the  dredge  is  put  out  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
boat  turned  toward  the  wind  until  it  just  takes  enough  to  keep 
the  sails  full,  and  it  will  move  slowly  toward  the  right,  drawing 
the  dredge  after  it.  It  is  best  to  put  out  the  dredge  while  the 
boat  is  going  at  a  good  speed,  and  to  pay 
out  the  line  slowly,  so  as  to  keep  the 
dredge  net  drawn  out  tightly  all  the  way 
down  and  prevent  its  rolling  up  or  getting 
over  one  of  the  scrapers.  By  holding 
on  the  rope  a  practised  hand  can  tell 
how  the  dredge  is  going  and  over  what 
kind  of  bottom.  If  it  is  rocky  the  dredge 
jumps  along  from  one  stone  to  another 
going  smoothly  for  a  few  moments,  then 
catching  on  some  corner  and  freeing  itself 
again,  until  at  length  it  usually  becomes 
caught  fast  and  stops  trie  boat.  Then  the 
rope  must  be  hauled  in,  and  when  it  is 
nearly  up  and  down  the  dredge  usually 
loosens  and  comes  up  easily  without  much 
in  it.  The  moving  of  the  dredge  over 
small  stones  and  shells  can  be  very  dis- 
tinctly felt  by  the  rope  and  so  can  the 
scraping  into  a  soft  or  gravelly  bottom  j  but  the  motions 
on  a  smooth  bottom  are  not  so  easy  to  understand,  Tor 
the  dredge  will  sometimes  go  along,  wrong  side  out  or 
rolled  up  in  seaweed,  in  the  smoothest  and  most  promis- 
ing way. 

In  letting  down  the  trawl  it  is  still  more  necessary  to  keep 


Fig.  142.  — Front  seg- 
ments of  Trophonia 
ajfinis,  enlarged. 


DREDGE   NETS. 


117 


the  rope  tight  so  as  to  prevent  the  long  net  from  getting  foul, 
or  the  frame  turning  over  before  reaching  the  bottom. 

When  the  ground  has  been  gone  over  or  the  dredge  ap- 
pears to  be  full  it  is  drawn  up.  In  shallow  water  two  or  three 
men  can  do  this  easily  by  hand,  but  it  is  well  to  have  a  wind- 
lass on  board  in  case  the  dredge  should  be  caught  or  get 
filled  with  stones. 

It  is  best  to  have  a  large  wooden  tray,  in  which  to  pick  over 


Fig.  143. — Head  and  front  segments  of  Diopatra  cuprea. 

the  contents  of  the  dredge  so  as  to  keep  the  boat  clean  and 
to  have  the  dirt  in  a  convenient  place  to  handle.  If  one  end 
of  the  tray  is  open  and  kept  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  the 
stones  and  mud  can  be  washed  in  the  tray  and  the  water 
allowed  to  run  off  and  the  whole  can  be  thrown  overboard 
when  done  with.  The  tray  can  be  made  of  a  convenient  size 
to  lay  across  a  small  boat  when  dredging  near  the  shore.  If 


-n8 


LIFE    ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


stones  and  gravel  come  up  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  pick 
them  over  as  carefully  as  possible,  but  if  there  is  mud  or  sand 
it  needs  to  be  washed  in  order  to  expose  the  animals.  This 
can  be  done  best  in  a  sieve  made  of  wire  gauze  with  ten  or 
twelve  holes  to  the  inch  supported  by  a  stouter  wire  net  un- 


Fig.  144. — Amphitrite  omata, 

der  it.  The  sieve  may  be  made  flat  supported  by  cleats  so 
that  the  water  will  run  under  it,  and  the  washing  done  in  the 
picking-over  tray ;  or  it  may  be  in  the  shape  of  a  half  cylinder 
and  hung  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  Fig.  138.  This  shape  lets 
the  water  through  more  rapidly  The  most  troublesome  mate- 
rial to  wash  is  fine  mud  which  sticks  together  so  closely  that 


DREDGING.  119 

the  water  will  not  go  through  it,  and  it  must  be  stirred  about 
with  the  hands  or  something  soft  until  it  is  gradually  worked 
through.  If  it  is  desired  to  examine  the  fine  mud  it  should 
be  passed  through  several  sieves  of  different  degrees  of  fine- 
ness and  the  finest  part  allowed  to  settle  in  water.  The  dif- 
ferent sizes  can  then  be  picked  over  separately. 

For  a  dredging  boat,  one  that  is  built  for  fishing,  with 
plenty  of  room  to  work  on  deck,  is  the  best ;  and  a  fisherman, 
who  is  accustomed  to  sail  it  and  knows  the  bottom,  the  best 
kind  of  help.  A  yacht  is  generally  inconvenient  and  the 
crew  over  careful  about  the  scratching  of  paint  and  spilling 
of  dirt,  which  will  surely  happen  with  the  greatest  care.  A 
schooner  is  generally  considered  the  best,  but  a  boat  of  any 
rig  will  answer  the  purpose  if  sailed  by  one  who  knows  how 
to  manage  it.  It  is  well  to  carry  a  chart  and  to  mark  on  it 
the  position  of  the  different  dredgings,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
and  also  the  depth  measured  by  a  sounding  line  and  the 
character  of  the  bottom  if  these  are  not  already  correctly 
printed  on  the  chart.  A  rope  suitable  for  the  dredge  can  not 
always  be  found  on  the  boat  and  it  is  necessary  to  have  one  for 
this  purpose.  A  small  rope  is,  of  course,  more  convenient 
to  handle  and  take  care  of,  but  in  dredging  especially  with  a 
large  boat,  it  is  liable  to  sudden  strains  and  one  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  none  too  large.  The  kind  known  to 
the  trade  as  "  bolt- rope  "  is  made  of  better  material  and  not 
so  tightly  twisted  as  ordinary  rope .  and  so  easier  to  handle 
and  less  liable  to  kink.  The  length  of  the  rope  should  be  at 
least  twice  the  depth  of  the  water  where  it  is  likely  to  be 
used.  A  number  of  pails  should  be  provided  beforehand  for 
taking  care  of  the  objects  dredged.  There  are  some  made 


120 


LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 


of  paper  which  do  not  shrink  when  dry  and  are  lighter  and 
cleaner  than  wooden  pails  but  not  so  strong.  Almost  every 
boat  has  a  stout  bucket  with  a  rope  handle  for  drawing  water 
and  this  is  better  for  the  purpose  than  the  ordinary  water 
pail  which  is  liable  to  come  off  the  handle  if  put  overboard. 
For  smaller  objects  wide-mouthed  bottles  of  various 
sizes  are  needed  and  they  should  be  kept  in  boxes 
or  flat-bottomed  baskets  where  they  will  stand  up. 
The  common  glass  preserve  jars  are  good  for  this 
purpose  and  are  inexpensive.  The  animals  which 
are  to  be  kept  alive  should  be  put  in  clean  water 
and  kept  cool,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  in  the 
shade  or  if  possible  on  ice ;  but  there  are  some  things  that 
can  not  be  kept  alive,  and  even  die  in  the  dredge,  and  such 
should  be  put  into  alcohol  at 
once.  Specimens  from  different 
hauls  on  different  kinds  of  bot- 
toms should  not  be  mixed  until 
there  is  time  to  look  them  all 
over. 

The  use  of  the  dredge  begins 
where  that  of  the  hand-net  ends, 
beyond  the  rockweed  and  eelgrass 
that  cover  the  rocks  and  mud  just 
below  low  tide.  It  is  not  of  much 
use  to  dredge  in  the  eelgrass,  as  the  same  animals  are  found 
where  they  can  be  reached  by  a  net,  and  a  dredge  either 
slips  over  the  grass  or  becomes  rolled  up  in  it,  in  either  case 
bringing  up  little. 

Beyond  the  grass  in  harbors  is  usually  mud  filled  with  decay- 


Fig.    146.  —  Hydractinia  poly 
clina.     Female  cluster. 


WORMS.  121 

ing  matter  that  gives  it  the  well  known  smell  of  docks  and 
mud  flats.  As  it  extends  outward,  however,  it  becomes  grad- 
ually cleaner  and  the  animals  change  to  those  of  clear  water. 
The  common  clam  may  be  found  here  almost  anywhere  and 
Macoma  fusca,  a  small  round  clam  already  mentioned  (page 
23).  The  round  clam  may  be  also  dredged  near  the  shore. 
A  little  farther  out  occurs  Yoldia  limatula  (page  114),  a  flat 
clam  with  a  smooth  yellow  shell,  often  black  toward  the  edge 
in  large  specimens ;  placed  in  water  it  runs  out  its  two  tubes 
an  inch  or  more,  and  will  usually  kick  out  its  curious  foot  by 
which  it  jumps  about  the  dish  and  buries  it- 
self in  the  mud.  The  foot  is  nearly  as  long 
as  the  shell  and  spreads  out  at  the  end  half 
an  inch  wide  giving  a  good  hold  on  the  mud 
into  which  it  may  be  pushed.  Another 
pretty  bivalve  from  the  mud  is  Angulus 
tener  (page  114).  It  has  a  large  pointed 
foot  and  very  long  tubes  which  are  trans- 
parent and  separate  to  the  shell.  The  Cy-  , . 

->  drachma  polyclz- 

prina  islandica  (page  115),  a  deep-water  na'  Male 
round  clam,  may  be  found  in  the  harbor  mud,  especially  small 
ones.  Among  the  worms  may  be  found  Clymenella  torquata 
(page  25),  which  manages  to  pick  out  sand  enough  to  make 
its  tubes  and  Trophonia  affinis  (page  116),  a  worm  with 
long  bristles  extending  forward  from  the  head  among  which 
.six  soft  appendages  are  thrust  out  after  it  has  remained  a 
short  time  in  water.  The  appendages  on  the  segments  be- 
hind the  head  are  all  short  and  the  body  tapers  toward  the 
tail.  This  is  often  dug  at  low  water  on  muddy  shores,  but 
small  specimens  have  been  found  in  considerable  numbers 


122 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


swimming  at  the  surface  in  Beverly  harbor.  Nereis  virens, 
the  common  bait  worm  (page  23),  Nephthys  ingens  and 
Nephthys  cceca,  are  also  common  mud  worms  ;  the  latter  have 
short  appendages  and  a  short  proboscis  with  a  circle  of  papillae 
around  the  end  that  is  thrust  out  when  they  are  put  in  alcohol. 
Where  the  mud  is  hard,  Diopatra  cuprea  (page  117),  may 
be  found,  a  large  and  showy  worm  with  a  pair  of  spiral  gills 
rilled  with  red  blood  on  each  segment. 
It  makes  a  strong  tube  which  extends 
above  the  sand  two  or  three  inches  and 
is  there  covered  half  an  inch  thick  with 
pieces  of  stone  and  shell.  It  draws 
down  below  the  surface  quickly  when 
touched  and  the  tubes  are  oftener 
dredged  than  the  worms.  It  lives, 
however,  above  low  water  in  some  places 
and  can  be  got  better  with  a  spade. 
The  conical  shells  of  Cistenides  Gouldii 
are  often  found  in  sand  and  mud  some- 
times with  the  worm  enclosed. 

The  snails  are  chiefly  those  which 
can  be  found  at  low  water,  among  them 
Lunatia  heros  (page  48),  and  its  near  relative,  Never ita  du- 
plicata,  whose  shell  is  not  so  round  and  has  a  thickened 
brown  piece  turning  out  of  the  mouth  around  the  middle  of 
it.  The  young  of  Lunatia  heros  are  often  marked  with  three 
rows  of  spots  running  around  the  shell,  sometimes  inside  as 
well  as  outside.  Illyanassa  obsoleta  (page  50)  is  another 
mud  snail  and  where  it  is  a  little  cleaner,  Tritia  trivittata 
(page  50),  one  of  the  most  active  snails  of  the  shore/ 


Fig.    148. —  Phascolosomo 
cementarium.    Enlarged. 


WORMS. 


123 


Where  the  bottom  is  hard  enough  to  hold  it  grows  the 
"  devil's  apron,"  Laminaria,  a  brown  seaweed  with  a  round 
stalk  like  India  rubber  and  a  flat  blade  three  or  four  feet  long 
and  six  or  eight  inches  wide.  It  is  attached  to  stones  and 
shells  by  small  clinging  branches  from  the  base,  and  among 
these  hide  away  a  great  many  animals  most  of  them  the  same 
as  found  at  low  water  on  gravelly  shores.  Among  them  are 
the  scaly  worms,  the  long- 
armed  starfishes,  and  several 
mud  worms,  Polycirrus,  de- 
scribed on  page  25  and  Am- 
phitrite  (page  1 1 8)  a  large  flesh- 
colored  worm  with  long  soft 
appendages  at  the  head,  and 
the  rest  of  the  body  enclosed 
in  a  soft  tube  of  mud.  The 
Laminaria  is  often  attached 
to  a  large  mussel  and  brings 
it  up  with  it,  sometimes  the 
common  species  and  some- 
times the  red  mussel,  Modi- 
ola  modiolus.  The  shells 
seem  to  be  held  tightly  together  by  the  seaweed  but  the 
mussels  are  usually  alive.  The  dredge  often  gets  into  this 
Laminaria  by  mistake  and  comes  up  covered  with  it,  but  if  it 
is  dredged  for  purposely,  a  grappling  hook  of  some  kind  is 
better.  After  cutting  off  the  roots  the  rest  of  the  Laminaria 
should  be  looked  over,  before  being  thrown  away,  for  polyzoa 
and  hydroids  which  often  cover  large  surfaces  upon  it.  At 
very  low  tides  the  Laminaria  can  be  got  at  without  dredging 


Fig.  149.  —  Shell  of  Buccinum 
undatuin . 


124  LIFE    ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

and  there  are  always  chances  of  pulling  it  up  on  fish-hooks 
and  anchors  and  finding  it  on  open  shores  after  storms. 

The  dredging  on  rocky  bottoms  near  the  shore  is  cleaner 
work,  but  it  needs  more  care  in  the  management  of  the  boat 
and  wears  more  on  the  dredge  and  rope.  Comparatively 
little  is  taken  up  from  rocky  bottoms,  for  the  more  active  ani- 
mals hide  in  the  crevices,  and  only  those  attached  to  the 
upper  surface  or  among  the  weeds  are  in  the  way  of  the 
dredge. 

The  motion  of  the  dredge  over  rocks  can  be  felt  by  hold- 
ing the  rope,  or  even  at  a  distance  from  it  by  the  jarring  of 
the  boat.  A  strong  dredge  with  a  sound  canvas  cover  over 
the  net  should  be  used,  with  a  rope  strong  enough  to  hold  in 
case  of  a  sudden  strain.  On  such  ground  the  dredge  jumps 
along  picking  up  a  little  here  and  there  and  finally  gets 
caught  among  the  rocks  and  will  only  let  go  when  the  boat  is 
hauled  back  over  it,  or  sometimes  the  small  line  breaks  and 
it  comes  up  sidewise.  The  dredge  will  generally  be  full  of 
red  seaweeds  covered  round  the  base  with  polyzoa  consist- 
ing largely  of  Membranipora  pilosa  and  Crisia  eburnea 
(page  60),  but  mixed  with  it  are  many  other  beautiful 
species  which  need  more  careful  examination  to  tell  them 
apart  than  can  be  given  between  the  hauls  of  the  dredge,  so 
it  is  well  to  cut  off  the  incrusted  parts  of  the  weeds  and  keep 
them  in  clean  water  till  they  can  be  looked  over.  There  are 
some  polyzoa  to  be  found  here  that  have  soft  shells  and 
grow  round  the  stems  of  rockweed  and  Irish  moss. 

The  best  specimens  from  rocky  bottoms  come  up  with 
loose  stones  that  will  almost  always  be  found  here  and  there, 
and  shells  of  Mussels  and  Cyprina  mactra.  Few  living 


CHITONS.  125 

mollusks    expose   themselves  where   they  can   get   into  the 
dredge;  but  Crepidula fornicata  (page  19),  and  Crucibulum 


Fig.   150. — Pentacta  frondosa ,  partly  expanded. 

striatiirn,  a  similar  shell  but  smaller  and  with  grooves  from 
the  apex  to  the  edge,  come  up  attached  to  stones. 

Several  Chitons  are  also  common  on  stones.  These 
are  snails  with  thick  skin  on  the  back  in  which  are  eight 
shelly  plates  lapping  over  each  other  like  fish  scales.  The 
head  and  foot  are  concealed  beneath  and  the  gills  are 


126 


LIFE    ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


in  two  grooves  on  each  side  just  over  the  foot.  They  cling 
closely  to  stones  and  resemble  them  in  color.  Leptochiton 
apiculatus,  which  is  common  south  of  Cape  Cod,  is  dirty  white 
like  the  stones  among  which  it  lives,  while  Trachydermon 
r  uber,  Fig.  145,  a  common  species  farther  north  is  bright  red, 
and  lives  on  stones  incrusted  with  "nullipores  "  of  the  same 
color.  This  nullipore  is  a  plant  as  hard  as  stone  that  covers 
the  stones  and  shells  in  certain  places,  and  even  the  backs  of 
crabs  and  lobsters  with  a  reddish  coating  usually  flat  and 
smooth  but  rising  in  places  into  ridges  and  knobs.  The 
spores  grow  in  little  hollows  in  the  surface.  Trachydermon 

ruber  and  Chiton  m&rmoreus 
hide  themselves  readily  on 
this  crust,  and  so  does  another 
nearly  white  species,  Trachy- 
dermon albus. 

Another  Chiton,  Amicula 
Emersonii,  lives  in  the  same 
localities  and  is  dirty  brown 
like  the  bare  stones  and  has  branching  hairs  on  the  back. 
The  shells  of  this  species  are  small  and  nearly  covered  up 
by  the  skin. 

The  rocky  bottoms  are  favorite  places  for  the  naked  mol- 
lusks.  Doto  coronata,  a  small  species  with  club-shaped  red 
papillae  dotted  with  black,  is  very  common  and  so  are  the 
green  Polycera  Lessonii  and  Elysiella  catulus.  The  former 
is  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  with  bright,  yellow 
spots  on  the  ends  of  the  tubercles  and  yellow  tipped  gills ; 
the  latter  half  as  large,  and  dark  green  with  sometimes  white 
spots. 


Fig.  151.  —  Ascidians  covered  with  sand. 


CRUSTACEA. 


127 


Among  the  red  seaweed  lives  a  long-legged  red  crab,  Hyas 
coarctatus,  shaped  something  like  the  spider  crab  (page  44), 
but  not  more  than  an  inch  or  two  long  and  red  colored. 
Its  motions  are  very  slow,  and  its  back  and  legs  are  covered 
with  seaweeds  which  grow  there  as  long  as  the  crab,  so  that  it 
is  hard  to  find.  Hippolyte  Grcenlandica,  a  shrimp  two  or 
three  inches  long  is  also  bright  red  like  the  seaweed.  Several 
other  shrimps  are  also  found 
and  a  Caprella  (page  46),  col- 
ored like  red  seaweed. 

Some  of  the  stones  often  have 
white  tubes  attached  to  them 
which  belong  to  worms  of  the 
genus  Serpula.  These  have  a 
wreath  of  feather- shaped  tenta- 
cles or  branchiae  around  the 
head  which  are  expanded  when 
the  worm  is  at  rest.  A  Spiror- 
bis  with  a  more  delicate  shell 
than  the  common  shore  species 
in  an  open  spiral  also  occurs 
on  the  seaweed. 

Fig.  152.  —  Pandaliis  annul ic amis. 

The  shore  starfishes  and  es- 
pecially the  sea-eggs  are  very  common   on   rocky  bottoms 
and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  get  a  dredge  full  of  the  latter 
mixed  with  stones. 

The  common  sea-anemone  and  another  kind,  the  thick- 
armed  sea-anemone,  Urticina  crassicornis,  are  both  found  on 
stones  ;  the  latter  has  fewer  and  thicker  tentacles  and  is  red, 
or  marked  with  red  spots,  around  the  sides  and  bases  of  the 


128  IJFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

tentacles.  They  sometimes  contract  so  as  to  be  almost 
flat. 

In  some  places  the  whole  bottom  is  covered  with  small 
stones  and  coarse  gravel  which  come  up  in  large  quantities 
in  the  dredge,  bringing  with  them  the  same  animals  which 
escape  when  attached  to  larger  stones.  Sometimes  immense 
numbers  of  shells  of  dead  bivalves  are  mixed  with  the  stones 
or  even  form  the  whole  covering  of  the  bottom.  Shells  of 
Mytilus  and  Modiola  often  occur  in  this  way,  and  also  those 
of  Cyprina  islandica  and  Mactra  solidissima  in  places  where 
a  living  specimen  of  either  species  is  seldom  found  ;  for  they 
hold  on  or  dig  into  the  bottom  when  alive  and  so  are  passed 
over  by  the  dredge. 

These  shelly  bottoms  are  favorite  places  for  hermit  crabs 
(page  45),  which  inhabit  the  dead  snails'  shells  of  all  kinds, 
especially  those  of  Lunatia  heros  of  various  sizes.  The  shells 
inhabited  by  crabs  are  often  covered  with  a  growth  of  white 
or  pink  animals,  Hydractinia  polyclina,  Figs.  146  and  147, 
which  should  be  carefully  examined.  They  form  a  crust  all 
over  .the  shell  from  which  extend  upward  little  polyps  some- 
thing like  Clava,  but  of  several  different  kinds  in  different 
parts  of  the  colony.  In  some  spots  most  of  the  individuals 
are  females  with  ovaries  along  the  sides  filled  with  eggs  and 
mixed  with  them  are  other  sterile  ones.  In  other  places  a 
large  part  are  males  mixed  with  sterile  ones  of  a  different  kind. 

Many  of  the  smaller  shells  are  occupied  in  another  way  by 
a  4<Sipunculoid  worm"  Phascolosoma  cementarium,  Fig.  148, 
a  common  species  on  the  northern  coasts  of  New  England. 
"This  worm  takes  possession  of  a  dead  shell  of  some  small 
Gasteropod,  like  the  hermit-crab,  but  as  the  aperture  is  always 


WORMS. 


I29 


too  large  for  the  passage  of  its  body,  it  fills  up  the  space 
around  it  with  a  very  hard  and  durable  cement,  composed  of 
mud  and  sand  united  together  by  a  secretion  from  the  animal* 
leaving  only  a  small,  round  opening,  through  which  the  worm 
can  extend  the  anterior  part 
of  its  body  to  the  distance  of 
one  or  two  inches,  and  into 
which  it  can  entirely  withdraw 
at  will.  It  thus  lives  perma- 
nently in  its  borrowed  shell, 
dragging  it  about  wherever  it 
wishes  to  go,  by  the  powerful 
contractions  of  its  body,  which 
can  be  extended  in  all  direc- 
tions and  is  very  changeable  in 
form.  When  fully  extended 
the  forward  or  retractile  part 
is  long  and  slender,  and  fur- 
nished close  to  the  end  with 
a  circle  of  small,  slender  tenta- 
cles, which  surr(Tund  the 
mouth ;  there  is  a  band  of 
minute  spinules  just  back  of 
the  tentacles  ;  the  anal  orifice 
is  at  the  base  of  the  retractile  part ;  the  region  posterior  to 
"this  has  a  firmer  and  more  granulous  skin,  and  is  furnished 
toward  the  posterior  end  with  a  broad  band  of  recurved 
spines,  which  evidently  aid  it  in  retaining  its  position  in 
the  shell.  As  it  grows  too  large  for  its  habitation,  instead 
of  changing  it  for  a  larger  shell  as  the  hermit-crabs  do, 


"C'nciola  irrorata  Say. 
Fig.  153. —  Unciola  irrorata. 


130  LIFE   ON  THE   SEASHORE. 

it  gradually  extends  its  tube  outward  beyond  the  aperture 
by  adding  new  materials  to  it. 

A  larger  sipunculoid,  Phascolosoma  Gouldii,  lives  in  grav- 
elly bottoms  near  low  water  where  it  is  hard  digging. 

The  dead  shells  are  usually  full  of  holes  running   along 
under  the  surface,  so  that  they  are  completely  honeycombed 
and   break  in  pieces    easily.     These    holes    are 
inhabited   by  worms  which   can   not   easily   be 
pulled  out,  but  creep  out  themselves  after  they 

IVlg.     154.   — 

Margarita     have  been  standing  for  some  time  without  the 

ooscura, 

water  being  changed.  Some  of  these  holes  in 
shells  are  caused  by  sponges  which  fill  them  up  and  ex- 
tend little  finger-shaped  processes  through  the  surface  of 
the  shell. 

On  the  southern  coast  of  New  England  two  of  the  largest 
snails  on  the  coast  are  found  on  these  bottoms,  Sycotypus 
canaliculatus    and    Fulgur    carica,    with 
shells   six   or  eight  inches  long. 

Crepidula  fornicata  is  very  common 
and  sometimes  the  bottom  is  covered  with 
its  dead  shells. 

Buccinum  itndatum,  Fig.  149,  is  a  com-      Fig.  \*&.—Astarte 
mon  shell  farther  north,  up  to  low  water. 
This  is  the  English  "Whelk,"  and  in  Europe  is  much  used 
as  an  article  of  food. 

On  both  rocks  and  shells  are  often  found  white  or  variously 
colored  masses  looking  like  pork  or  tapioca  pudding.  These 
are  compound  ascidians  of  the  genera  Amaroscium  and 
Leptoclinum.  The  individuals  are  very  small  and  connected 
by  a  thick  jelly-like  substance  through  which  are  the  open- 


HOLOTHURIANS.  131 

ings  by  which  the  water  passes  in  and  out.  The  structure 
is  best  seen  by  cutting  a  slice. 

With  the  starfishes  and  echini  there  occurs,  south  of  Cape 
Cod,  a  dark  purple  Holothurian,  Thyone  Briareus,  four  or 
five  inches  long,  covered  with  fine  papillae  all  over  the  surface, 
and  in  Massachusetts  bay  and  farther  north,  Pentacta  fron- 
dosa,  Fig.  150,  the  largest  Holothurian  of  the  coast.  This 
is  dark  brown,  five  or  six  inches  long  and  shaped  like  a  cu- 
cumber, with  five  grooves  from  one  end  to  the  other  in  which 
are  five  rows  of  suckers.  When  expanded  in  water  it  puts 
out  a  circle  of  ten  branching  tentacles  and  may  be  preserved 
partly  expanded  by  tying  a  string  around  below  them  before 
it  has  time  to  draw  them  in. 

Another  Holothurian,  Caudina  arenata,  lives  buried  in 
sand,  but  is  sometimes  washed  ashore  after  storms.  It  is 
shaped  quite  differently  from  Pentacta,  one  end  of  the  body 
being  drawn  out  narrow  so  that  it  can  be  extended  up  to  the 
surface  while  the  rest  is  buried.  The  mouth  is  at  the  end  of 
this  narrow  portion. 

On  sandy  bottoms  the  "sand-dollar"  is  sometimes  dredged 
in  great  quantities,  as  are  also  several  Ascidians  that  cover 
themselves  with  a  coating  of  sand  which  adheres  even  after 
they  are  taken  out  of  the  water,  Fig.  151.  While  they  are 
contracted  they  are  entirely  concealed  and  look  like  balls  of 
sand ;  but  when  at  rest  they  put  out  two  tubes,  at  the  ends  of 

• 

which  are  the  holes  through  which  the  water  runs  in  and  out. 

The  animals  which  have  been  mentioned  thus  far  are  the 

ones  most  likely  to  be  met  with  along  the  northern  coast  in 

bays  and  harbors,  and  we  will  now  only  mention  a  few  which 


I32 


LIFE   ON   THE   SEASHORE. 


live  in  colder  and  deeper  water,  at  different  depths  in  differ- 
ent places,  on  hard,  muddy,  or  sandy  bottoms. 

The  common  shrimp,  Crangon  vulgaris  (page  36),  is  found 
from  low  water  down  to  a  considerable  depth,  where  another 
stouter  species,  Crangon  boreas,  occurs  with  a  more  spiny 
shell  and  marked  with  spots  of  reddish-brown.  The  most 
common  deep  water  shrimp  is  Pandalus  annitlicornis,  Fig. 

152;  it  often  gets  into  the 
dredge  and  still  oftener  into  the 
trawl,  and  usually  dies  before 
reaching  the  surface.  It  is 
partly  transparent  and  marked 
with  red  on  the  edges  of  the 
segments.  Another  species, 
Pandalus  borealis,  grows  larger, 
five  or  six  inches  long,  and 
lives  in  deeper  water.  Both 
species  are  good  eating,  but 
the  front  part  of  the  body  con- 
taining the  stomach  should  be 
thrown  away.  With  these  are 
several  other  shrimps  of  the 
genus  Hippolyte,  most  of  them 
beautifully  marked  with  red. 

There  are  two  Amphipods  which  are  commonly  found,  in 
dredging,  on  various  kinds  of  bottom  and  even  at  low  water, 
and  might  have  been  mentioned  before.  One  is  Undo  la 
irrorata,  Fig.  153.  It  is  covered  with  red  and  white  mark- 
ings when  fresh,  and  is  much  more  flattened  up  and  down 


Fig.  156.  —  Sternaspis  fossor. 


AMPHIPODS.  133 

than  most  of  the  group,  so  that  it  can  rest  back  up.  The 
other  is  a  stout  species,  Ptilocheirus  pinguis,  which  is  gray  or 
purplish  with  a  lighter  border  round  the  segments. 


Fig.  157.  —  Boltenia  Bolteni,  a  long-stalked  Ascidian. 

Among  the  snails  besides  Lunatia  hcros,  a  much  smaller 


134  LIFE   ON  THE  SEASHORE. 

species,  Lunatia  immaculata,  is  common.  It  is  white, 
smoother  and  more  pointed  than  the  large  species. 

Buccinum  undatum  (page  123),  is  still  found  here.  Fusus 
decemcostatus  is  a  large  shell  two  or  three  inches  long  with 
high  ridges  around  it.  Margarita  obscura,  Fig.  154,  and 
other  species  of  Margarita  are  short  shells  with  ridges  run- 
ning around  them  and  they  have  a  pearly  color. 

Menestho  albula  is  a  long  whitish  shell  about  an  inch  long. 
Scalaria  Grcenlandica  is  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
and  has  raised  ridges  running  across  it  at  short  distances  apart. 


Fig.  158.  —  Terebratulina  septentrtonalis. 

There  are  several  naked  snails  here  that  are  not  found  near 
the  shore.  One  of  these  is  Dendronotus  robustus,  a  stouter 
species  than  arborescens  (page  52),  with  a  wider  head  and 
shorter  gills.  There  are  also  several  species  of  Eolis. 

Among  the  bivalves  are  Astarte  sulcata,  Fig.  155,  Astarte 
castanea,  a  smooth  species,  and  Astarte  quadrans. 

Nucula  delphinodonta  is  a  little  shell  that  looks  like  a  grain 
of  gravel  and  is  often  found  mixed  with  it.  Ledo  tenuisul- 
cata  is  a  thin  shining  shell  like  Yoldia  limatula  (page  114), 
but  smaller  and  with  one  end  long  and  narrow. 

There  are  two  very  conspicuous  worms,  one  a  small  worm 


BRACHIOPODS. 


Sternaspis  fossor,  Fig.  156  (much  enlarged),  with  a  pair  of 
little  shells  on  its  back.  The  other  is  one  of  the  largest  worms, 
Aphrodite  aculcata,  which  grows  to  be  four  or  five  inches  long 
and  two  inches  wide.  It  is  related  to  the  scaly  worms 
(page  26),  and  is  covered  with  long  bristles  of  various  shapes 
that  curve  up  over  the  back  and  make  it  look  like  a  small 
quadruped  covered  with  fur.  Small  specimens  are  oftener 
found  than  those  of  the  largest  size. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  the  deeper  water  ascidians  is 
Boltenia  Bolteni,  Fig.  157,  which  gets 
to  be  two  or  three  inches  long  and  has 
a  stem  six  or  eight  inches  long  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  the  bottom. 
Small  individuals  are  often  found  on 
seaweed.  Another  large  Ascidian  is 
Cynthia  pyriformis,  which  becomes 
even  larger,  but  is  attached  by  a  wide 
base  to  the  bottom.  It  is  sometimes 
brightly  colored  red  and  yellow  like  a 
peach. 

The  common  Terebratulina  septentri- 
onalis,  Fig.  158,  is  attached  to  stones  or 
lumps  of  mud  by  a  short  stem.  It  has 
an  upper  and  under  shell  which  open  a  short  distance  when 
alive  and  show  the  two  spiral  arms  or  gills  at  the  sides  of  the 
mouth.  This  does  not  belong  with  the  bivalve  mollusks  but 
to  the  Brachiopods,  a  class  of  animals  of  which  there  are 
very  few  living  species,  but  great  numbers  of  fossils.  The 
shells  are  often  covered  by  a  sponge  which  grows  larger  than 
the  shell  itself. 


Fig.    159  - 

nan  I 


Corymorpha 
pcndnla.  The  thick 
end  of  the  stem  extends 
below  the  sand. 


136 


LIFE   ON  THE  SEASHORE. 


On  the  same  bottom  with  Tewbratala  grow  many  sponges. 
Grantia  riliata  is  an  egg-shaped  sponge  with  an  opening  in 
the  upper  end  surrounded  by  long  needles. 

A  species  of  Polymastia  grows  over  stones  or  shells  and 
has  long  papillae  extending  up  from  various  parts  of  it  which 
have  their  spicules  arranged  in  two  sets,  one  running  length- 
wise and  the  other  around  so  as  to  form  nearly  square  open- 
ings. These  sometimes  get  torn  off  and  come  up  alone  in  the 
dredge.  A  species  of  Tethya  grows  in  flat  masses  covered 


Fig,  160,  —  Altyonium  carneum.     Three  polyps,  enlarged  four  times. 

with  long  fine  spicules  like  hairs.  Other  sponges  grow  in 
large  soft  yellow  masses  that  fall  to  pieces  soon  after  leaving 
the  water. 

Where  the  bottom  is  sandy,  one  of  the  commonest  animals 
is  Corymorpha  pendula,  Fig.  159.  It  is  colored  pink  and 
white  and  grows  six  inches  long.  The  dilated  end  of  the 
stem  is  embedded  in  the  sand. 

There  is  a  compound  polyp,  Alcyonium  carneum,  Fig.  1 60, 
that  grows  in  large  flesh  colored  clusters  attached  to  stones. 
These  clusters  are  entirely  soft  and  make  no  coral. 


ECHINODERMS.  137 

On  this  bottom  are  several  other  Echinoderms.  The  Lopho- 
thuria  Fabricii,  Fig.  161,  is  one  of  the  commonest.  While 
Pentacta  has  a  soft  body  with  fine  rows  of  suckers  all  alike, 


Fig.  161.  —  Lophotlmria  Fabricii  expanded,  turned  up  so  as  to  show 
the  -soft  under  side. 


the  Lophothuria  has  only  one  side  soft  and  the  three  rows  of 
suckers  belonging  to  it.     The  other  side  is  covered  with  hard 


138  LIFE    ON   THE   SEASHORE. 

scales  of  a  bright  red  color.  The  animal  rests  and  crawls  on 
the  soft  side  so  that  it  does  not  look  at  all  like  a  radiate  animal. 
The  tentacles  round  the  mouth  are  usually  drawn  in  when 
they  come  up,  but  after  resting  a  short  time  in  water  they  will 
expand  like  those  of  Pentacta. 

The  same  starfishes  as  are  on  the  shore  are  found  down  to 
considerable  depths  and  with  them  a  more  delicate  white  one. 
Leptasterias  tenera  and  a  ten-armed  one,  Solaster  endeca. 

Great  numbers  of  interesting  animals  are  brought  up  by 
fishermen  in  lobster-traps,  seines  and  even  on  fish-hooks,  es- 
pecially where  the  latter  are  left  down  a  long  time  as  on 
"trawls ;"  but  it  is  hard  to  induce  these  men  to  bring  in  any- 
thing except  marketable  fishes  even  for  a  fair  price.  When 
this  can  be  done,  however,  a  surprising  quantity  of  new  ani- 
mals is  sure  to  be  found,  as  has  been  the  case  at  Gloucester 
during  the  past  few  years  where  fishermen  have  become  inter- 
ested in  the  work  of  the  U-  S.  Fish  Commission  and  have 
brought  in  cartloads  of  things  that  were  formerly  thrown  away 
and  were  almost  unknown  to  naturalists. 

Other  animals,  especially  shells,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
stomachs  of  fishes  which  have  swallowed  them  in  deep  water, 
and  great  numbers  of  interesting  things  have  been  collected 
from  this  source. 


INDEX, 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Actinia 

67 

Cerebratulus 

27 

Alcyonium  carneum 

136 

Chiton  marmoreus 

126 

Amaroscium     . 

130 

Chitons 

125 

Amicula  Emersonii 

126 

Cistenides  Gouldii   . 

.      24,  122 

28,  44 

Common  clam 

19,  2O,  21 

Aniphitrite 

123 

Clava 

•             73 

Angulus  tener 

121 

Clione  papillionacea 

94 

Animals  between  tides     . 

.             I-IO 

Clymenella  torquata 

•      24,  25 

Animals  below  tides 

33 

Copepods 

82 

Anomia 

19 

Coral       .... 

70 

Aphrodite  aculeata 

135 

Corymorpha  pendula 

136 

Ascidians 

56-130,  135 

Coryne  mirabilis 

74,  125 

Ascidians   compound 

TQO 

Crabs       .... 

38 

Asterias 

•                       *^* 

59 

Crangon 

132 

Astrangia 

70 

Crepidula  fornicata 

18,  1*5,  130 

Astarte  castanea 

134 

Cribrella 

98 

Astarte  quadrans     . 

134 

Crisia  eburnea         .        . 

124 

Astarte  sulcata 

134 

Ctenophorse 

106 

Autolytus 

.      55,  86 

Cumacea 

86 

Aurelia 

99 

Cuttlefishes 

8-9 

Cyanea    .        «        .        . 

IOI 

Barnacles 

ii 

Cynthia  pyriformis 

135 

Beach  animals 

.       11-32 

Cyprina  islandica 

121 

Beach  snails 

16 

Blue  crab 

4* 

Dendronotus  arborescens 

.      48,134 

Bolina      .... 

n>7 

Dendronotus  robustus     . 

134 

Boltenia  bolteni 

i35 

Devil's  apron 

16 

Bottom  animals 

109 

Diopatra  cuprea 

122 

Brachiopods     . 

135 

Doto  coronata 

.      48,  126 

Buccinum  undatum 

ton     IQA 

T)     A 

Burrowing  worms 

•  *  j^t  134 

23 

g 

Echinus 

63 

Caligus 

85 

Elysiella  catulus 

126 

Callinectes 

41 

Eohs        .... 

.      48,  134 

Cancer              , 

38 

Caprella 

44 

Fabricia  Leidyi 

55 

Caudina  arenata      .         . 

131 

Fiddler  crabs 

3° 

Cephalopods 

89 

Fish  eggs 

88 

142 


INDEX. 


.PAGE" 

PAGE 

Fulgur  carica 

130 

Metridium  marginatum 

67 

Fusus  decemcostatus 

T34 

Megalops 

39 

Membranipora  pilosa 

124 

Gammarus 

28 

Menestho  albula 

134 

Gelasimus 

3° 

Modiola  modiolus 

•    '6,  123 

Modiola  plicatula 

J5 

Hen  clam 

21 

Molgula 

56 

Hermit  crabs 

43 

Mud  worms     . 

23 

Hippolyte  groenlandica 

121 

Mussels 

14 

Holothurians 

.    66,  131 

Mya  arenaria 

19 

Horseshoe  crab 

44 

Mysis       .... 

85 

Hyas  coarctatus 

127 

Mytilus  edulis 

14 

Hybocodon      . 

105 

Hydractinia     . 

128 

Naked  snails 

47 

Hydroids 

74 

Nanomia 

105 

Hyperia 

86 

Nassa  obsoleta 

.      46,  122 

Nemertines      .         .         . 

26 

Idotaea     . 

.      29,  86 

Nephthys         .        .        . 

122 

Idyia       .        .        . 

107 

Nereis      .... 

23,  86,  122 

Infusoria 

.        .            78 

Nereis  virens 

.    23,  186 

Isopods 

.        -      29,  85 

Neverita  duplicata 

122 

Nicolea  simplex 

54 

Jelly-fishes      . 

.        .            98 

Nucula  delphinodonta    . 

134 

Nudibranchs 

.    47,  126 

Lacuna  vincta 

.        .            46 

T  aminAria 

£ 

Obelia 

_  _ 

Ledo  tenuisulcata 

134 

Oceania  languida 

104 

Lepidonotus    . 

26 

Ophiurans        .         . 

62 

Leptasterias  tenera 

•        .    .              138 

Oyster 

49 

Leptochiton  apiculatus 

126 

Oyster  crab 

41 

Leptoclinum 

I30 

Leptoplana  variabilis 

27 

Pandalus 

132 

Leptosynapta  Girardii 

66 

Panopaeus 

4° 

Limnoria          .         • 

Pecten     •        •        .        • 

CT 

Limpet    •        •        • 

•         •            39 
18 

Pedicellariae     .         .         • 

f>A 

Limulus           . 

44 

Pentacta  frondosa        125,131-137,138 

Lineus  viridis 

26 

Periwinkle 

J7 

Littorina          .        . 

.     17,  18 

Phascolosoma  cementarium 

128 

Littorina  litorea 

17 

Phascolosoma  Gouldii     . 

130 

Littorina  palliata     . 

17 

Physalia 

106 

Littorina  rudis         . 

17 

Planarians 

27 

Lobster 

34 

Platyonichus            .        . 

41 

Lophothuria    . 

.         .            98 

Pleurobrachia           .         . 

107 

Lophothuria  Fabricii 

>       •           137 

Polycera  Lessonii 

126 

Lunatia  heros 

17,  45,  132,  133 

Polycirrus 

•    25,  123 

Lunatia  immaculata 

134 

Polymastra      .        . 

136 

Polyp,  compound    . 

136 

Macoma  fusca         • 

.22,  121 

Polyzoa            .        .        • 

.    58,124 

Mactra  solidissima 

•          •               21 

Portuguese  man-of-war 

106 

Margarita  obscura 

•          •             134 

Pteropods        .        .        . 

•           94 

INDEX. 


143 


Ptilocheirus  pinguis 
Purpura  lapillus 
Purpura  lapillus,  eggs  of, 

PAGE 

133 

16 
J7 

Surface  animals       .        . 
Sycotypus  canaliculatus           . 

Tangle     .... 

PAGE 
8l 
I30 

Quahaug          .        .        . 

Razor  clam 
Round  clam     . 

Sagartia  leucolena 

•                   21 

.                 20 
21 

69 

88 

Tectura  testudinalis 
Terebratulina    septentrionalis 
Teredo     
Tethya             .... 
Thyone  briareus 
Tiaropsis          .         .         .         . 
Tima  formosa 

18 
*35 

52 

136 

131 
104 
104 
126 

Salpa       .... 
Sand  dollar 
Saxicava 
Scaly  worms 
Scollop 

96 
.    66,  131 

20 
26 

Tritia  trivittata        .        .        . 
Trophonia  affinis     .         .         . 
Tubularia        .   .  ... 

46,  122 
121 
72 

Sea  anemone 
Sea  egg            .        . 
Ship  worm       . 
Shore  animals 

67 
63 

:    * 

Urosalpinx  cinerea 
Urticina  crassicornis 

Venus  mercenarea 

17 
127 

21 

Siliqua  costata 
Solaster  endeca 
Spider  crab       . 
Sponges 
Squids      .... 
Starfishes 

•                   22 

.38 
42 

75,  135,  136 
89 

Worms              .        .         . 
Worm  tubes             .        .        . 

Yoldia  limatula 
Zoea         

23,54 
24 

I2I-I34 
38 

Sternaspis  fossor 

135 

LD  21- 


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